RURAL  TEXT-BOOK 
SERIES 


PRINCIPLES 

AND  PRACTICE 

OF  JUDGING 

LIVE-STOCK 


GAY 


L.  H.  BAILEY 

EDITOR 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT   LOS  ANGELES 


GIFT  OF 

Mrs.   M.   H.   Wood 


IRural  TTeitXBoofc  Scries 

EDITED  BY  L.   H.  BAILEY 


THE   PRINCIPLES   AND   PRACTICE 
OF  JUDGING  LIVE-STOCK 


iaural  EexfciSoofe 


Mann,  BEGINNINGS  IN  AGRICULTURE. 
Warren,  ELEMENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 
Warren,  FARM  MANAGEMENT. 
Lyon  and  Pippin,  SOIL  MANAGEMENT. 
J.  F.  Duggar,  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS. 
B.  M.  Duggar,  PLANT  PHYSIOLOGY. 
Harper,  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  FOR  SCHOOLS. 
Montgomery,  CORN  CROPS. 
Wheeler,  MANURES  AND  FERTILIZERS. 
Livingston,  FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION. 
Widtsoe,  IRRIGATION  PRACTICE. 
Piper,  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 
Hitchcock,  TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES. 
Gay,    THE    PRINCIPLES    AND    PRACTICE     OF 
JUDGING  LIVE-STOCK. 


THE  PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE 
OF  JUDGING  LIVE-STOCK 


BY 


CARL  WARREN    GAY,  D.V.M.,  B.S.A. 

PROFESSOR    OF    ANIMAL    INDUSTRY,    UNIVERSITY   OF 

PENNSYLVANIA,    PHILADELPHIA 

PENNSYLVANIA 


"Ntto 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1914 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1914, 
BY  THE  MACMILLAN   COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  November,  1914. 


Xottao 

J.  S.  Cashing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.8.A. 


PREFACE 

WITH  the  extension  of  the  live-stock  industry  and  the 
development  of  the  sciences  fundamental  thereto,  the 
necessity  is  felt  for  striking  at  the  root  of  things,  of  getting 
well  under  the  surface.  This  necessity  is  emphasized  par- 
ticularly in  the  matter  of  live-stock  judging.  The  study 
of  feeds  and  feeding,  of  the  principles  of  breeding,  and  of 
systems  of  live-stock  management  have  progressed  further 
along  scientific  lines  than  has  the  study  of  live-stock 
judging. 

Doubtless  there  are  many  buyers  and  breeders  of  ani- 
mals whose  judgment  is  more  accurate,  even,  than  that 
of  the  trained  expert,  but  there  is  neither  science  nor 
system  in  their  reasoning  and  they  cannot  tell  why  they  so 
decide.  In  order  that  others  may  be  trained  in  ways  of 
live-stock  improvement  it  is  important  that  our  knowledge 
of  animal  excellence  be  increased,  our  powers  of  observa- 
tion  and  perception  made  more  keen,  our  judgment  in 
making  comparisons  more  logical,  and  our  decisions  more 
accurate.  To  do  this  requires  a  more  exhaustive  and 
scientific  study  of  the  subject.  The  best  way  to  under- 
stand  the  exterior  of  animal  form  is  to  study  the  interior. 
Nowadays  we  make  soil  surveys  where  we  formerly  con- 
sidered  only  area  and  topography.  It  seems  reasonable 
that  the  best  judge  of  a  steer's  loin  should  be  a  connoisseur 
of  porterhouse;  to  prognosticate  most  closely  the  dur- 
ability of  a  horse's  foot  one  should  know  all  of  the  com- 


.'17401 ft 


vi  PREFACE 

plicated  structures  contained  within  its  horny  wall  and 
their  related  functions,  as  concerned  in  locomotion.  It  is 
not  sufficient  simply  to  require  that  the  texture  of  a  cow's 
udder  shall  or  shall  not  be  thus  and  so,  but  reasons  should 
be  given  in  terms  of  more  or  less  pounds  of  milk. 

The  nomenclature  needs  revision  and  a  more  consistent 
use  of  specific  terms  might  be  adopted.  Some  names  are 
misleading.  It  is  related  how  a  leading  agricultural  edu- 
cator had  to  see  the  "  milk  "  vein  punctured  before  he 
would  be  convinced  that  blood  and  not  milk  flowed  through 
it.  If  the  name  "  mammary  vein  "  were  employed  instead 
of  "  milk  vein,"  no  such  erroneous  meaning  would  be 
conveyed.  Some  regions  which  are  specifically  designated 
cannot  be  definitely  described.  No  one  can  determine,  for 
instance,  just  where  the  shoulder  vein  of  the  steer  becomes 
neck  on  the  one  side  and  shoulder  on  the  other.  Some 
terms  with  a  distinct  significance  are  used  loosely  and 
interchangeably.  It  is  the  fore  quarter  of  the  steer  but 
the  fore  hand  of  the  horse ;  the  rump  of  the  cow,  the  croup 
of  the  horse.  The  appearance  of  the  dairy  cow  is  spare 
or  lean,  not  thin.  The  draft  horse  is  compact  while  the 
heavy  harness  horse  is  closely  made,  and  to  say  that  the 
latter  is  compact  is  to  suggest  draftiness,  a  feature  which 
he  should  not  possess. 

It  would  be  as  impracticable  to  drop  the  objectionable 
names  in  common  usage  as  it  is  unscientific  to  retain  them ; 
the  intelligent  husbandman  should  command  them  both  in 
order  to  converse  intelligently  with  either  the  stockmen 
whom  he  must  cultivate  and  from  whom  he  derives 
much  of  his  inspiration  and  knowledge  of  the  work,  or 
those  students  whose  instructor  he  may  be. 

The  effort  has  been  made,  in  the  preparation  of  this 
work,  to  take  the  student  and  stockman  a  step  further 


PREFACE  vii 

along  this  line  than  he  has  gone  heretofore.  Care  has 
been  exercised  not  to  sacrifice  the  popular  phase  upon 
which  our  knowledge  of  the  subject  is  based  but  to  bridge 
over  onto  a  more  technical  consideration  of  it. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  author's  intention  of  keeping  the 
work  thoroughly  practical,  yet  giving  it  a  touch  of  a 
somewhat  technical  nature,  will  be  appreciated  by  students 

and  stockmen  alike. 

CARL  W.  GAY. 

PHILADELPHIA, 
July  1,  1914. 


CONTENTS 
PART  I 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  JUDGING 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.     GENERAL  VIEW 3 

II.     THE  ANIMAL  MACHINE  AND  ITS  PLACE  IN  ODR  ECONOMY        6 

PART   II 
THE  PRACTICE  OF  JUDGING 

III.  DEFINITION  AND  PROCEDURE 27 

IV.  FEATURES    OP    ANIMAL    FORM    TO    BE    CONSIDERED    IN 

JUDGING 31 

V.     THE  MEANS  OF  MAKING  OBSERVATIONS  ....       60 
VI.     PRACTICE  JUDGING 64 

PART   III 
JUDGING  HORSES 

VII.     THE  INDIVIDUAL 93 

VIII.     THE  TYPES  AND  CLASSES 113 

IX.     THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 147 

X.     THE  MULE 168 

PART   IV 
JUDGING  CATTLE 

XI.     THE  TYPES 175 

XII.     THE  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE 217 

ix 


CONTENTS 


PART    V 


OIIAI'TEl! 


I'AGI 


XIII.  THE  TYPES  OF  SHEEP   .......     239 

XIV.  THE  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 252 

PAET  VI 

XV.     THE  TYPES  OF  SWINE  .         .         .         .         .         .         .271 

XVI.     THE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE .286 

PART    VII 
JUDGING   BREEDING   ANIMALS 

XVII.     BREEDING  STOCK 297 

XVIII.     LIVE-STOCK  SHOWS 307 

APPENDIX          ....  .325 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Live-Stock  Judging      .       Frontispiece 

FIG.  PAGE 

1.  Glandular  epithelium.     (Piersol,  Histology,  Lippincott)       .        9 

2.  Transverse    section    of    dried   bone.      (Piersol,   Histology, 

Lippincott) 9 

3.  Involuntary  muscle  in  longitudinal  section.     (Piersol,  His- 

tology, Lippincott) .        .10 

4.  Involuntary  muscle  in   transverse  section.      (Piersol,  His- 

tology, Lippincott) 10 

5.  Section  of  portion  of  a  nerve  trunk.     (Piersol,  Histology, 

Lippincott) 11 

6.  Points  of  the  horse.     (Bailey,  Cyclopedia,  Macmillan)          .       12 

7.  Surface  of  mucous  membrane   of  the  intestine.     (Bailey, 

Cyclopedia,  Macmillan) 16 

8.  Side  view  of  internal  organs  of  mare.     (Bailey,  Cyclopedia, 

Macmillan).         ...  17 

9.  Generative  organs  of  the  mare.     (Bailey,  Cyclopedia,  Mac- 

millan)     20 

10.  Pelvis  of  the  mare  showing  the  dimensions  of  the  pelvic 

girdle  through   which    the    foetus  passes   in   delivery. 
(Sisson,  Veterinary  Anatomy,  Saunders)       ...      21 

11.  International  Students'  Judging  Contest.     Contestants  plac- 

ing a  class  of  Short-horn  bulls.     (Courtesy  Breeders' 
Gazette,  Chicago,  111.) 20 

12.  Shod  and  unshod  hoofs  in  founder.     (Bailey,  Cyclopedia, 

Macmillan) 40 

13.  Leg  showing  large  spavin.     (Bailey,  Cyclopedia,  Macmillan)  41 

14.  Leg  showing  ringbone.     (Bailey,  Cyclopedia,  Macmillan)    .  41 

15.  Leg  showing  curb.     (Bailey,  Cyclopedia,  Macmillan)  .        .  42 

16.  Leg  showing  capped  hock.     (Bailey,  Cyclopedia,  Macmillan)  42 

xi 


xii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

17.  A  temporary  or  milk  tooth.     (Roberts,  The  Horse,  Mac- 

millan) 43 

18.  Lower  jaw  of  foal  from  one  to  two  weeks  old.     (Roberts, 

The  Horse,  Macmillau) 44 

19.  Lower  jaw  of  the  two-year-old  colt.     (Roberts,  The  Horse, 

Macmillan) 44 

20.  Lower  jaw  of  the  three-year-old  colt.     (Roberts,  The  Horse, 

Macmillan) 45 

21.  Lower  jaw  of  the  four-year-old.     (Roberts,  The  Horse,  Mac- 

millan)     46 

22.  Side  view  of  the  mouth  of  a  four-year-old.     (Roberts,  The 

Horse,  Macmillan) 46 

23.  Lower  jaw  of  a  five-year-old.     (Roberts,  The  Horse,  Mac- 

millan)     47 

24.  Side  view  of  the  mouth  of  a  five-year-old.     (Roberts,  The 

Horse,  Macmillan) 47 

25.  Lower  jaw  of  a  six-year-old.     (Roberts,  The  Horse,  Mac- 

millan)     48 

26.  Side  view  of  the  mouth  of  a  six-year-old.     (Roberts,  The 

Horse,  Macmillan) 48 

27.  Lower  jaw  of  the  seven-year-old.     (Roberts,  The   Horse, 

Macmillan) 49 

28.  Side  view  of  the  mouth  of  a  seven-year-old.     (Roberts,  The 

Horse,  Macmillan) 49 

29.  Lower  jaw  of  an  eight-year-old.     (Roberts,  The  Horse,  Mac- 

millan)  50 

30.  Side  view  of  the  mouth  of  an  eight-year-old.     (Roberts,  The 

Horse,  Macmillan) 50 

31.  Side  view  of  the  mouth  of  an  aged  horse.     (Roberts,  The 

Horse,  Macmillan) 51 

32.  Lower  jaw  of  an  aged  horse.     (Roberts,  The  Horse,  Mac- 

millan)     51 

33.  Shows  the  wear  of  an  incisor  tooth  at  the  ages  of  three, 

four,  five,  six,  nine  and  twenty  years.     (Roberts,  The 
Horse,  Macmillan) 52 

34.  Cross  section  of  an  incisor  tooth,  showing  how  the  shape 

changes  with  advancing  years.     (Roberts,  The  Horse, 
Macmillan) •        .         .      53 

35.  Outline  drawing  of  a  horse 85 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


30.   Outline  drawing  of  a  beef  steer 86 

37.  Outline  drawing  of  a  dairy  cow 87 

38.  Outline  drawing  of  a  mutton  wether 88 

39.  Outline  drawing  of  a  fat  barrow 89 

40.  Sagittal  section  of  distal   part  of  limb  of  horse.     (After 

Ellenberger-Baum,  Anat.  fur  Kunstler)          ...       94 

41.  A  trotter  at  speed  showing  the  reach  or  extension  of  the 

stride  characteristic  of  this  gait 99 

42.  The  high   stepping  trot  showing  the  "placing"  and  the 

extreme  flexion  of  knees  and  hocks.  (Courtesy  Irving- 
ton  Farm,  Sewickley,  Pa.)  100- 

43.  The   saddle   horse  trot ;   going  collectedly,  well  off  hocks, 

moderate  knee  action  and  a  springy  stride.  (Courtesy 
Devon  Horse  Show  Ass'n) 101 

44.  A  pacer  at  speed,  showing  the  lateral   character   of  this 

gait.     (Courtesy  The  Horseman,  Chicago,  111. )      .         .102 

45.  A  gaited  saddle  horse  at  the  rack,  although  the  four-beat 

phase  of  this  gait  is  not  shown.  (Courtesy  Longview 
Farm,  Lees  Summit,  Mo.) 104 

46.  The  canter,  the  hind  foot  bearing  the  weight  and  beginning 

a  new  series  of  three  beats  at  the  phase  of  contact,  after 
the  horse  has  been  projected  clear  of  the  ground  by  the 
independent  forefoot.  (Courtesy  kDevon  Horse  Show 
Ass'n) 105 

47.  The  jump,  in  which   the   forehand  lifts,  the  hindquarters 

propel.     (Courtesy  Devon  Horse  Show  Ass'n)       .        .     106 

48.  The  power  horse  type 114 

49.  Frontal  section  of  large  metatarsal   (hind  cannon)   bone 

of  horse,  posterior  part.  (Sisson,  Veterinary  Anatomy, 
Saunders) 115 

50.  Cross  section  of  distal  part  of  left  metacarpus  (cannon) 

of  horse,  just  above  sesamoids.  (Sisson,  Veterinary 
Anatomy,  Saunders) 116 

51.  The  speed  horse  type.     (Courtesy  The  Horseman,  Chicago, 

111.) ....     119 

52.  The  show  horse  type      .        . 121 

63.   The  saddle  horse  type.     (Courtesy  Wm.  T.  Hunter,  Devon, 

Pa.) .     123 

54.   A  pair  of  heavy  draft  geldings       ......     126 


xiv  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

via.  PAGE 

55.  A  pair  of  chunks 127 

56.  A  pair  of  expressers 128 

57.  A  "four"  of  coach  horses.     (Courtesy  Devon  Horse  Show 

Ass'n) 130 

58.  A  park  mare  to  ladies'  phaeton.     (Courtesy  Devon  Horse 

Show  Ass'n) 131 

59.  A  runabout  mare  correctly  turned  out 133 

60.  A  pair  of  roadsters 134 

61.  A  gaited  saddle   horse.     (Courtesy  Mrs.   R.   T.  Lowndes, 

Danville,  Ky.) 136 

62.  A  walk-trot-canter  mare         .  ....     137 

63.  The  thoroughbred  type  of  walk-trot-canter  saddle  horse. 

(Courtesy  Devon  Horse  Show  Ass'n)     .         .         .         .138 

64.  A  light  weight  hunter.     (Courtesy  Glen  Riddle  Farms,  Glen 

Riddle,  Pa. ) 139 

65.  A  heavy   weight  hunter.     (Courtesy   Devon   Horse  Show 

Ass'n) 140 

66.  A  42-inch  harness  pony.     (Courtesy  Devon   Horse  Show 

Ass'n) 142 

67.  An  11^-hand  saddle  pony.     (Courtesy  Devon  Horse  Show 

Ass'n) 143 

68.  A  12|-hand  harness  pony.     (Courtesy  Irvington  Farm,  Se- 

wickley,  Pa.) 144 

69.  A   13-hand  saddle  pony.     (Courtesy  Devon   Horse   Show 

Ass'n) 145 

70.  A  polo  pony.     (Courtesy  Win.  T.  Hunter,  Devon,  Pa.)       .     146 

71.  A  Percheron  stallion.  (Courtesy  E.  B.  White,  Leesburg,  Va.)     148 

72.  A  Belgian  stallion .149 

73.  A  Clydesdale  stallion.    (Courtesy  Conyngham  Bros.,  Wilkes- 

Barre,  Pa.) 150 

74.  A  Shire  stallion.     (Courtesy  Truman's  Pioneer  Stud  Farm, 

Bushnell,  111.) .151 

75.  A  Suffolk  stallion.     (Courtesy  Conyngham  Bros.,  Wilkes- 

Barre,  Pa.) 153 

76.  A  Hackney  stallion.     (Courtesy  Hon.  Henry  Fairfax,  Aldie, 

Va.) 155 

77.  A  French  Coach  stallion 156 

78.  A  German  Coach  stallion 158 

79.  A  Standardbred  stallion  .  169 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


80.  A  Thoroughbred  stallion.     (Courtesy  Devon  Horse  Show 

Ass'n) 101 

81.  An  American  saddle  stallion -163 

82.  A   Shetland  stallion.   (Courtesy  National  Stockman  and 

Farmer,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.) 164 

83.  A  Welsh  pony  stallion.     (Courtesy  Geo.  A.  Heyl,  Wash- 

ington, 111.) 165 

84.  A  Hackney  pony  stallion.   (Courtesy  Irvington  Farm,  Se- 

wickley,  Pa.) 167 

85.  A  draft  mule 169 

86.  A  plantation  mule ^170 

87.  The  block  type.    This  steer  dressed  the  International  Grand 

Champion  carcass.     (Courtesy  National  Stockman  and 
Farmer,  Pittsburgh.  Pa.) 178 

88.  The    fat    cells    interspersed  between    the   muscle    fibers. 

(Bailey,  Cyclopedia,  Macmillan) 179 

89.  The  "  marbling  "  of  meat.  (Bailey,  Cyclopedia,  Macmillan)     180 

90.  Beef  carcass  cuts.     (Courtesy  Illinois  Experiment  Station, 

Urbana,  111.)          .  184 

91.  The  sirloin  cut.     (Bailey,  Cyclopedia,  Macmillan)      .        .     186 

92.  The  porterhouse  cut.     (Bailey,  Cyclopedia,  Macmillan)     .     186 

93.  The  round  cut.     (Bailey,  Cyclopedia,  Macmillan)       .        .     186 

94.  The  standing  or  prime  rib  cut.     (Bailey,  Cyclopedia,  Mac- 

millan)   187 

95-   A  typical  beef  steer 189 

96.  A  carload  of  highly  finished  cattle.     (Courtesy  National 

Stockman  and  Farmer,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.)       .        .         .     192 

97.  A  carload  of  blue  grays  "  on  feed "     .         .        .        .        .     194 

98.  A  carload  of  grade  Hereford  feeders 190 

99  A.  Alveoli  of  the  mammary  gland  of  the  goat  at  the  time  of 

parturition.     Beginning  of  fat  formation.     (Grimmer, 
Chemie    und    Physiologic    der    Milch,    Paul    Parey, 

Berlin)  .  200 

99  B.  Alveoli  of  the  mammary  gland  of  goat  at  the  time  of 
parturition,  showing  successive  stages  of  secretion. 
(Grimmer,  Chemie  und  Physiologie  der  Milch,  Paul 

•     Parey,  Berlin) 201 

100.    A  typical  dairy  cow.     (Courtesy  Penshurst  Farm,  Nar- 

berth,  Pa.)     ....  ....     202 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


101.  A  typical   dairy  cow,   rear  view.      (Courtesy  Penshurst 

Farm,  Narberth,  Pa.) 203 

102.  The  points  of  the  cow.     (Bailey,  Cyclopedia,  Macmillan)  .  205 

103.  Section  of  the  cow's  udder,  showing  the  internal  structure 

and  arrangement  of  the  gland.     (Sisson,   Veterinary 

Anatomy,  Saunders) 206 

104.  Section  of  cow's  udder.     (After  Moussu)    .        .        .        .208 

105.  Ayrshire  heifer  calves,  showing  the  growth,  feminine  appear- 

ance and  shape  indicative  of  future  dairy  development. 

(Courtesy  of  Highland  Farm,  Bryn  Ma wr,  Pa.)    .         .  212 

106.  A  typical  dual-purpose  cow.      (Courtesy  National  Stock- 

man and  Farmer,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.)        .         .        .        .215 

107.  A  Short-horn  bull.     (Courtesy  Rookwood  Farm,  Ames,  la.)  218 

108.  A  Polled  Durham  bull .        .         .        .     "  .         .         .        .219 

109.  A  Hereford  bull.     (Courtesy  Orchard  Lake  Farm,  Kent- 

land,  Ind.) 220 

110.  An  Aberdeen- Angus  bull.     (Courtesy  Chas.  Gray,  Chicago, 

111.) 222 

111.  A  Galloway  bull 224 

112.  A  Jersey  cow 226 

113.  A  Guernsey  cow.     (Courtesy  Pencoyd  Farm,  Bala,  Pa.)    .  227 

114.  A  Holstein-Friesian  cow.     (Courtesy  Lakeside  Farm,  Syra- 

cuse, N.  Y.) 229 

115.  An  Ayrshire  cow.  (Courtesy  Penshurst  Farm,  Narberth,  Pa.)  230 

116.  A  Brown  Swiss  cow 232 

117.  A  Dutch  Belted  cow     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .233 

118.  A  Red  Polled  cow 234 

119.  A  Milking  Short-horn  cow.     (Courtesy  National  Stockman 

and  Farmer,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.) 235 

120.  Mutton  carcass  cuts.     (Courtesy  Illinois  Experiment  Sta- 

tion, Urbana,  111.) 241 

121.  A  typical  mutton  wether 243 

122.  Points  of  the  sheep.     (Bailey,  Cyclopedia,  Macmillan)       .  244 

123.  A  Southdown  ram 253 

124.  A  Shropshire  ram.     (Courtesy  Jess  C.  Andrew,  Lafayette, 

Ind.) 254 

125.  An  Oxford  ram 255 

120.    A  Hampshire  ram,  ewe,  and  lambs.     (Courtesy  National 

Stockman  and  Farmer,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.)       .         .        .256 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xvii 

FIG.  PAGE 

127.  A  Dorset-horn  ram 258 

128.  A  Cheviot  ram 259 

129.  A  Leicester  ram  and  ewe 260 

130.  A  Lincoln  ram 262 

181.   A  Cotswold  ram 263 

132.  An  American  Merino  ram.     (Courtesy  National  Stockman 

and  Farmer,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.) 264 

133.  A  Delaine  Merino  ram.     (Courtesy  National  Stockman  and 

Farmer,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.) 265 

134.  A  Rambouillet  ram.     (Courtesy  National   Stockman  and 

Farmer,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.) 266 

135.  Hog  carcass  cuts.     (Courtesy  Illinois  Experiment  Station, 

Urbana,  111. ) 273 

136.  A  typical  fat  barrow 274 

137.  Points  of  the  hog.     (Bailey,  Cyclopedia,  Macmillan)          .  275 

138.  A  typical  bacon  barrow 280 

139.  A  Berkshire  boar.     (Courtesy  Rookwood  Farm,  Ames,  la.)  286 

140.  A  Poland  China  boar 287 

141.  A  Duroc  Jersey  boar 288 

142.  A  Chester  White  boar  .........  289 

143.  A  Hampshire  boar 290 

144.  A  Yorkshire  sow.     (Courtesy  Farmers'  Advocate,  London, 

Canada) 291 

146.    A  Tamworth  sow.     (Courtesy  Farmers'  Advocate,  London, 

Canada)           .                        292 

146.  Percheron  yearlings   whose   sire  is  shown  as  Figure   71. 

(Courtesy  E.  B.  White,  Leesburg,  Va.)        .         .         .  298 

147.  Prepotency  of  the  sire   manifested  in  the  production  as 

well  as  the  individuality  of  his  get.     (Courtesy  High- 
land Farm,  Bryn  Mawr,  Pa.) 299 

148.  Sex  and  breed  character  in  the  stallion.    ( Courtesy  Conyng- 

ham  Bros.,  Wilkes-Barre,  Pa.) 300 

149.  Sex  and  breed  character  in  the  bull 301 

150.  A  typical  breeding  female 302 

151.  The  characters  desired  in  the  breeding  stallion  and  mare, 

shown  in  contrast.     (Courtesy  Fairholme  Farms,  New 

Market,  N.J.) 304 

152.  A  typical  dairy  bull,  masculine  yet  refined,  of  true  dairy 

type  and  possessing  unusual  breed  character         .        .  305 


xviii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

153.  Judging  saddle  horses  — A  walk-trot-canter  class.     (Cour- 

tesy Devon  Horse  Show  Ass'n)     308 

154.  Judging  saddle  horses — A  class  of  hunters.     (Courtesy 

Devon  Horse  Show  Ass'n) 310 

155.  Judging  draft  horses  —  A  class  of  Percheron  mares     .        .  312 

156.  Judging  beef  cattle  —  A  class  of  Short-horn  bulls        .        .  313 

157.  Judging  dairy  cattle  —  A  class  of  Ayrshire  cows          .         .  315 

158.  Aged  herd  of  Aberdeen- Angus.     (Courtesy  Chas.  Gray, 

Chicago,  111.) 317 

159.  Showing  in  hand.     (Courtesy  Irvington  Farm,  Sewickley, 

Pa.) 318 


PART  I 
THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  JUDGING 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


CHAPTER  I 
GENERAL   VIEW 

THE  ultimate  object  of  live-stock  husbandry  is  the  pro- 
duction of  market  animals  and  their  products,  an  end 
which  is  attained  by  two  steps  or  stages,  breeding  and 
feeding.  The  one  furnishes  the  raw  material,  the  other 
finishes  the  product.  Thus  there  are  two  groups  of 
husbandmen,  those  concerned  with  the  production  of  the 
animal  machine  and  those  engaged  in  the  employment 
of  this  machine  for  the  manufacture  of  animal  products. 

There  are,  furthermore,  two  classes  of  breeders,  one  whose 
efforts  are  devoted  to  the  breeding  of  foundation  stock  and 
the  improvement  of  the  race  in  general,  another  whose 
purpose  is  to  supply  the  feeders  from  their  studs,  herds 
and  flocks.  The  latter  are  obviously  dependent  upon  the 
former.  The  breeder  either  may  finish  or  work  his  own 
stock,  as  is  usually  the  case  with  hogs  and  commonly  with 
horses,  dairy  cattle  and  sheep,  or  may  dispose  of  them  while 
immature  or  thin  to  the  feeder,  as  is  the  rule  with  beef 
cattle  and  range  sheep.  In  some  instances,  therefore,  the 
breeder  is  also  the  feeder,  while  in  others  the  line  between 
them  is  rather  sharply  drawn. 

The  position  of  the  breeder  is  fundamental  and  of 
primary  importance,  as  he  determines  the  grade  of  mate- 
3 


4  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

rial  available  to  the  feeder ;  with  good  material  insured, 
however,  it  ist  incumbent  upon  the  feeder  to  make  the 
most  of  the  possibilities  which  the  breeder  has  afforded 
him. 

1.  Breeding  for  improvement.  —  Breeding,  as  we  com- 
monly interpret  the  term,  consists  in  regulating  the  progeny 
by  controlling  the  parentage,  to  attain  improvement.     The 
constructive  breeder  aims  at  more  than  the  mere  multi- 
plication of  his  foundation  stock ;   he  strives  for  qualita- 
tive   as   well    as   quantitative    improvement   with    each 
succeeding  generation.     Although  improvement  may  be 
slight  in  each  instance,  the  cumulative  results  of  a  num- 
ber of  generations,  the  progenitors  of  which  have  been 
carefully  selected,  may  be  considerable.     This  has  been 
the  principal   factor  operating   in  the  evolution  of  the 
domestic  types  and  breeds  of  animals,  mutations  having 
been  much  more  useful  to  plant  than,  to  animal  breeders. 
The  bases  for  the  qualitative  improvement  to  which  selec- 
tion is  made  in  the  breeding  of  animals  are,  in  most  in- 
stances,  characters  which  were  originally  possessed  by 
them  in  their  feral  state  and  useful  only  for  their  own 
subsistence.     Under   domestication   these   natural   func- 
tions have  been  perverted,  readapted  and  developed  so 
as  to  amply  serve  the  needs  and  purposes  of  man.     The 
motive  governing  live-stock  improvement  has  been  well 
expressed  by  Owen :  "Whatever  the  animal  kingdom  can 
afford  for  our  food  or  clothing,  tools,  weapons,  and  arma- 
ment, whatever  the  lower  creation  can  contribute  to  our 
wants,  our  comforts,  our  possessions  or  our  pride,  that  we 
sternly  exact  and  take  'at  all  costs." 

2.  Selection   is   judging.  —  Control   of   the   parents   is 
accomplished   by   means   of   selection,    and   selection    is 
judging.     Proficiency  in  this  regard  is  fundamental,  for 


GENERAL   VIEW  5 

without  judicious  matings  the  breeder's  facilities,  resources 
and  even  the  merit  of  his  foundation  stock  count  for  little 
in  the  long  run.  The  master  breeders  of  live-stock  history 
have  all  been  judges  of  the  first  order. 

It  should  not  be  supposed  that  the  activity  of  the  agri- 
cultural schools  in  training  students  to  become  expert 
judges  is  for  the  sole  purpose  of  supplying  men  qualified 
to  tie  ribbons  in  the  show  ring.  Notwithstanding  the 
fact  that  the  placing  of  show  ring  awards  carries  with  it 
great  responsibility,  since  ideals  and  standards  so  estab- 
lished serve  to  lead  or  mislead  the  rank  and  file  of  live- 
stock breeders,  the  real  benefits  of  accurate  judgment  in 
the  show  ring  are  not  to  be  measured  by  ribbons,  plate  or 
cash.  They  are  enjoyed  by  all  consumers  of  meat  or  milk, 
wearers  of  clothing,  and  users  of  horses  for  either  profit  or 
pleasure. 

The  breeder  or  feeder  buyer  constitutes  the  judge, 
whether  he  ever  officiates  in  a  show  ring  or  not,  and  those 
who  benefit  by  his  judgment  are  the  consumers  of  his 
product. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  ANIMAL   MACHINE  AND  ITS  PLACE  IN 
OUR  ECONOMY 

THE  highest  type  of  domesticated  animal  has  been 
defined  as  the  one  which  constitutes  the  most  efficient 
machine  for  making  the  greatest  return,  in  its  specific 
product,  on  the  raw  material  consumed.  In  this  it  bears 
an  important  economic  relation  to  man  as  a  source  of 
food  and  clothing,  and  as  an  auxiliary  in  work. 

3.  Economic  purpose  of  animal  machine.  —  Food  with 
air  and  water  are  the  three  essentials  for  human  existence. 
Food  is  that  which  builds  up  the  body  and  furnishes 
energy  for  its  activities ;  that  which  brings  within  reach 
of  the  living  cells  which  form  the  tissues  the  elements 
which  they  need  for  life  and  growth.  Only  such  available 
substances  can  be  called  food,  no  matter  what  their  chemi- 
cal composition  may  be.  Coal  may  be  fuel  for  the  fur- 
nace, but  not  for  cattle ;  rough  forage  like  hay  may  form 
the  basis  of  cattle  rations,  but  it  is  not  available  for  man's 
consumption.  It  is  in  the  conversion  of  such  raw  mate- 
rials as  are  not  available  to  man  in  their  present  form  into 
animal  food  products  or  into  horse  power  for  his  service 
that  the  animal  machine  serves  a  most  important  eco- 
nomic purpose.  If  man  were  to  eliminate  the  fruits  of 
animal  production  from  his  dietary,  there  would  be  of 
necessity  an  enormous  increase  in  the  cost  of  living,  to 
compensate  for  the  tremendous  loss  of  the  crops  of  the 
6 


THE  ANIMAL   MACHINE  1 

field  which  would  be  utter  waste,  or,  at  best,  serve  but 
for  fuel  if  available  only  in  their  raw,  unconverted  state. 
4.  Intermediate  relation  of  animal  to  plants  and  man.  — 
There  are  about  fifteen  principal  chemical  elements  of 
nutrition.  They  are  constituents  of  the  human  body, 
likewise  the  bodies  of  animals  and  plants ;  a  few  of  them 
compose  also  the  three  requisites  for  the  maintenance  of 
life,  —  air,  water  and  soil,  the  sources  of  food.  We  can, 
therefore,  understand  the  synthetical  relationship  between 
man  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  original  sources  of  his  sub- 
sistence on  the  other,  with  the  plants  and  animals  as  inter- 
mediary factors.  Some  of  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  re- 
quired by  man  is  obtained  direct  from  the  water  he  drinks ; 
more  of  his  oxygen  is  taken  direct  from  the  air  he  breathes, 
and  in  return  he  gives  carbon  dioxide,  equally  essential 
for  plant  respiration.  The  soil,  however,  contributes  to 
our  support  only  indirectly  through  the  bodies  of  the 
plants  grown  upon  it.  These  plants  also  make  abun- 
dant use  of  the  nitrogen  of  the  air,  an  important  function, 
since  nitrogen  is  a  chief  constituent  of  the  protoplasm  of 
the  human  or  animal  cell,  both  of  which  are  helpless  to 
draw  directly  upon  the  supply  in  the  air.  A  great  wealth 
of  plant  products  are  directly  available  to  man  in  quantity 
and  variety  to  meet  his  nutritive  requirements,  but  the 
entire  body  of  some  plants  and  the  major  portion  of  many 
others  are  impossible  for  human  consumption.  The  corn 
kernel,  after  a  process  of  milling,  becomes  a  staple  article 
of  food  for  man,  but  for  every  pound  of  corn  there  is  ap- 
proximately a  pound  of  stover,  which  would  be  absolutely 
valueless  were  it  not  for  the  ruminant's  ability  to  transform 
it  into  digestible,  nutritious  animal  food  products,  meat 
and  milk.  We  readily  recognize  the  physical  impossibility 
of  a  man's  consuming  sufficient  pasture  grass  or  hay  to 


8  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

sustain  life,  although  the  necessary  elements  are  contained 
therein;  yet  from  these  materials  are  produced,  in  large 
part,  the  meat  we  eat  and  the  milk  we  drink,  our  two 
most  valuable  tissue-building  foods. 

It  is  with  the  view  of  securing  the  most  efficient  animal 
machines  for  the  different  kinds  of  production  that  the 
husbandman  practices  judging. 

THE  FUNCTION  OF  THE  ANIMAL  MACHINE 

6.  Efficiency.  —  Mechanical  efficiency  is  a  matter  which 
involves  the  character  of  the  materials  of  construction, 
the  perfection  of  the  individual  parts,  the  accuracy  with 
which  they  are  assembled,  the  power  available  for  their 
operation,  and  the  effectiveness  of  its  application  and 
control. 

Efficiency  in  the  functional  capacity  of  animals  is 
analogous  in  many  respects.  Whether  in  the  production 
of  horse  power,  milk,  a  carcass,  or  a  fleece,  it  involves  and 
is  directly  dependent  upon,  first,  the  individual  unit  of 
structure,  the  cell,  and  its  arrangement  in  the  organization 
of  tissue ;  second,  the  gross  structure  into  which  the 
various  individual  tissues  are  incorporated ;  third,  the 
vital  phenomena  with  which  the  tissues  are  engaged  for 
both  the  maintenance  and  productiveness  of  the  structure 
as  a  whole ;  fourth,  the  manner  in  which  they  are  gov- 
erned; and,  fifth,  the  significance  of  abnormal  conditions 
of  structure  and  the  extent  to  which  they  may  impair 
function. 

An  elementary  consideration  of  histology,  anatomy, 
physiology  and  pathology,  in  their  relation  to  the  struc- 
tures and  correlated  functions  concerned  in  animal  pro- 
duction is,  therefore,  essential. 


THE  ANIMAL  MACHINE 


HISTOLOGY 

6.  Tissue.  —  Any  tissue  is  composed  of  an  essential 
unit  of  structure,  the  cell,  and  an  inter-cellular  material 
by  means  of  which  the  cells  are  held 
together.  The  character  of  the  cells 
themselves,  their  arrangement  in  the 
inter-cellular  substance,  its  nature,  and 
the  proportion  of  each  are  what  give  to 
tissues  their  characteristic  features. 

The  animal  body  is  composed  of 
four  kinds  of  tissue,  i.e.  epithelial,  con- 
nective, muscle  and  nerve.  The  general 
nature  of  each  and  its  place  in  the 
organization  of  the  animal  economy  should  be  fully  under- 
stood in  order  to  pass  intelligently  upon  the  relative  struc- 
tural and  functional  merits  of  two  or  more  individuals. 

7.  Epithelial  tissue.  —  The  epi- 
nTlfll^ft  thelial  group   is  represented  by 

the  skin  or  outer  covering  of  the 
body;  the  mucous  and  serous 
membranes  lining  the  interior, 
the  former  those  cavities  in  com- 
munication with  the  outside  as 
in  the  respiratory  and  digestive 
tracts,  the  latter  the  closed  cavi- 
ties of  the  chest  and  abdomen. 
The  glands  or  secreting  struc- 
one  of  the  tures  such  as  the  udder,  are  also 
composed  of  epithelial  tissue 

ceutrically  disposed,  consti-    (Fig.  1). 

terns8  0ththcH£?u!dVi£       8'    Connective    tissue. —  The 
testinai  lamellae.  connective    tissue    group    com- 


, 


FIG.  2.  —  Transverse  section 

of  dried  bone, 


10 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


prises  all  those  which  enter  into  the  supportive  structure 
or  framework  of  the  body,  such  as  bone,  cartilage,  liga- 
ments and  tendons,  and  the  interstitial  tissue  of  all 
the  organs.  All  of  the  connective  tissues  are  more  or  less 
fibrous  in  character  (Fig.  2). 

9.  Muscle  tissue.  —  Muscle  tissue  may  be  divided  into 
voluntary  and  involuntary,  the  former  represented  by  the 
skeletal  muscles  with  which  the  judge  is  most  concerned 


FIG.  3.  —  Involuntary  muscle  in 
longitudinal  section ;  the  muscle- 
cells  are  often  cut  obliquely,  and 
hence  appear  shorter  than  when 


FIG.  4.  —  Involuntary  muscle  in 
transverse  section  :  portions 
of  three  bundles  are  repre- 
sented separated  by  areolar 
tissue  (a) ;  the  nucl  eated  areas 
are  sections  of  the  muscle- 
cells  through  their  nuclei ;  the 
smaller  figures  represent  sec- 
tions of  the  cells  cut  nearer 
the  ends. 


in  the  matters  of  locomotion  and  meat  production, 
the  latter  entering  into  the  makeup  of  the  heart,  the  walls 
of  the  blood  vessels  and  the  intestines,  structures  having 
to  do  with  the  vital  functions.  The  characteristic  feature 
of  muscle  tissue  is  its  contractility,  which  takes  place  in 
response  to  a  nerve  stimulus  (Figs.-  3  and  4). 

10.    Nerve  tissue.  —  The  nervous  system  is  divided  into 
a  central,  composed  of  the  brain  and  the  spinal  cord,  and  a 


ANIMAL  MACHINE 


11 


peripheral,  made  up  of  the  nerve  trunks  and  their  nerve 
endings,  which  are  distributed,  in  a  most  general  way,  to 
all  parts.  Nerve  tissue  has  the  property  of  conveying  or 
transmitting  impulses  to  or  from  the  central  station  or 
brain,  those  impulses  emanating  from  the  centers  and 


FIG.  5.  —  Section  of  portion  of  a  nerve  trunk,  including  three  bundles 
of  individual  nerve  fibers  surrounded  by  the  perineurium  (p)  ;  the 
bundles,  together  with  the  blood  vessels  and  adipose  tissue,  are  united 
by  the  more  general  epineurium  (e)  ;  the  sections  of  the  individual 
nerve  fibers  are  held  in  place  by  the  endoneurium ;  fat  cells  near 
which  are  the  sections  of  blood  vessels  (/). 

directed  to  the  general  muscular  system  traversing  the 
so-called  motor  trunks,  while  those  impulses  which  origi- 
nate in  the  peripheral  endings  and  are  conveyed  to  the 
brain  travel  along  the  sensory  nerves  (Fig.  5). 

ANATOMY 

11.    The  skeleton.  —  The  foundation  of  the  structure 
of  the  quadruped  is  the  bony  skeleton,  divided,  for  con- 


12 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


venience,  into  the  trunk  and  the  extremities.  The  trunk 
consists  of  the  spinal  column  and  the  ribs.  The  spinal 
column  is  composed  of  individual  segments  of  bone  called 
vertebrae,  which  support  the  head  at  one  end  and  ter- 


FIG.  6.  —  Points  of  the  horse.  1,  muzzle;  2,  nostrils;  3,  face;  4,  eye; 
5,  forehead  ;  6,  ear;  7,  neck;  8,  crest;  9,  withers;  10,  back;  11,  loin; 
12,  hip;  13,  croup;  14,  tail;  15,  thigh;  16,  quarter;  17,  gaskiii ; 
18,  hock;  19,  stifle;  20,  flank;  21,  ribs;  22,  tendons;  23,  fetlock; 
24,  pastern ;  25,  foot ;  26,  heel ;  27,  cannon  ;  28,  knee  ;  29,  forearm  ; 
30,  chest ;  31,  arm ;  32,  shoulder ;  33,  throttle  or  throat  latch  ;  A,  seat 
of  thoroughpin  ;  B,  curb  ;  C,  bog  spavin ;  D,  bone  spavin ;  E,  splint ; 
F,  wind  puff ;  G,  capped  elbow ;  H,  poll  evil. 

minate,  with  a  marked  diminution  in  size,  in  the  tail 
at  the  other.  Its  course  may  be  divided  into  regions, 
the  cervical  or  neck,  the  thoracic  or  chest,  the  lumbar  or 


THE  ANIMAL  MACHINE  13 

loin,  the  sacral  or  coupling,  and  the  coccygeal  or  tail. 
The  ribs  spring  from  the  thoracic  vertebrae  and  are 
attached,  the  anterior  directly,  the  posterior  indirectly, 
to  the  sternum  or  breast  bone,  which  constitutes  the 
region  of  the  brisket  in  ruminants.  The  ribs  inclose  the 
thorax  or  chest  cavity  and  a  part  of  the  abdominal  cavity. 
Superiorly  upright  spines  are  developed  from  the  thoracic 
vertebrae,  which  give  form  to  the  withers  or  chine 
(Fig.  6). 

12.  The  foreleg.  —  The  legs  or  extremities  consist  of 
columns,  too,  each  divided  into  regions.     The  fore  leg  is 
composed  of  a  scapula  or  shoulder  blade,  humerus  or  arm, 
radius  and  ulna  or  forearm,  carpus  or  knee,  metacarpus 
or  cannon,  the  first  and  second  phalanges  which  constitute 
the  pastern,  the  latter  more  particularly  the  coronet,  and 
the  pedal,  coffin,  or  foot-bone. 

13.  The  hind  leg.  —  The  hind  leg  includes  the  pelvis 
or  hip,  by  means  of  which  the  coupling  between  the  spinal 
column  and  the  hind  leg  is  made  and  which  also  forms  the 
pelvic  girdle  inclosing  the  pelvic  cavity  through  which  the 
foetus  has  to  pass   in   the   female,  the   femur  or   thigh, 
the  patella  or  knee,  the  tibia  and  fibula  or  lower  thigh, 
the  tarsus  or  hock,  the  metatarsus  or   cannon,  the  re- 
mainder of  the  leg  being  a  duplication  of  the  anterior 
extremity. 

14.  The  foot.  —  The  region  below  the  knees  and  hocks 
is  anatomically  considered  as  the  foot  proper,  the  appro- 
priateness of  which  is  shown  by  a  study  of  the  analogous 
parts  in  the  biped  and  the  intervening  stages  in  the  rabbit 
and  the  cat. 

16.  The  joints.  —  The  legs  constitute  supporting  col- 
umns while  at  rest,  but  the  extremities  of  the  individual 
bones,  opposed  to  each  other  in  the  columns,  are  furnished 


14  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

with  articular  or  joint  surfaces  by  means  of  which  one 
bone  moves  on  the  other.  By  the  operation  of  the  joints 
the  columns  are  broken,  the  legs  alternately  flexed  or 
extended,  and  locomotion  is  thus  accomplished.  The  joint 
surfaces  are  maintained  in  position  by  the  joint  capsule 
and  lubricated  by  the  synovia  secreted  by  it. 

16.  The    muscular    system.  —  The    skeletal   muscular 
system  is  composed  of  the  striated,  voluntary  variety  of 
muscle  tissue.     Some   individual  muscles   are   long  and 
thin,  some  short  and  thick,  and  others  broad   and  flat. 
They  are  arranged  mostly  in  groups  of  those  having  similar 
action,  and  may  be  in  two  or  more  superposed  layers. 
While  the  primary  function  of  the  muscles  is  to  operate 
the  bones,  they  serve  a  secondary  purpose  in  furnishing,  as 
it  were,  the  skeleton,  giving  form  to  what  would  other- 
wise be  but  a  framework.     This  is  much  more  marked  in 
some  parts  than  in  others.     The  head,  for  instance,  is 
but  little  altered  in  form  or  proportions  from  those  of  the 
skull,  while  all  but  the  column  of  the  neck  is  muscle,  giving 
it  a  much  better  outline  than  it  has  in  the  skeleton ;   the 
form  of  the  withers  of  the  horse  is  but  slightly  altered  by 
the  muscles  of  that  region,  while  the  croup  is  made  up  of 
such  a  mass  of  muscle  as  to  completely  change  the  skeletal 
outline  of  that  part. 

17.  The     structure    and    arrangement    of    individual 
muscles.  —  Each   muscle   has,   in  its  relation  with   the 
bones,  an  origin  where  the  fibers  are  attached  directly 
to  a  considerable  area  of  bone  surface,  and  an  insertion 
which  is  usually  accomplished  by  means  of  a  tendon  into 
which  the  muscle  fibers  are  continued.     The  tendon  may 
have  more  length  than  the  muscle  itself,  transmitting  the 
power  of  the  muscle  a  considerable  distance  before  it  is 
finally  inserted.     The  extensors  and  flexors  of  the  foot,  for 


THE  ANIMAL   MACHINE  15 

instance,  terminate  their  muscular  portions  above  the 
knee,  the  tendon  continuing  throughout  the  entire  length 
of  the  cannon  and  the  pastern  before  being  inserted. 
The  origin  of  the  muscle  serves  as  the  fixed  point  toward 
which  the  bone  on  which  the  muscle  has  its  movable 
insertion  is  drawn  by  its  contraction.  However,  other 
muscles  may  fix  the  point  of  movable  insertion  when  the 
action  of  the  muscle  is  reversed.  The  long  muscle  con- 
cerned with  knee  action  in  the  horse  is  an  example  in 
point.  It  has  its  origin  at  the  side  of  the  head  and  upper 
part  of  the  neck  and  is  inserted  on  the  humerus  of  the 
arm.  With  the  fixed  point  above,  its  contraction  elevates 
and  carries  forward  the  arm  and  with  it  the  leg,  but  with 
the  leg  fixed  as  in  the  standing  position,  its  contraction 
may  serve  to  incline  the  head  and  neck  to  one  side. 

18.  Muscular  action.  —  Each  muscle  has  a  definite 
action,  depending  upon  its  position  with  relation  to  the 
joint  and  the  nature  of  the  joint  surface  itself.  Hinge 
joints  have  their  articular  surfaces  so  arranged  as  to  pre- 
vent motion  in  but  one  plane,  as  the  elbow  or  hock  joints, 
while  others,  as  the  ball  and  socket  joints  of  the  shoulder 
and  hip,  are  capable  of  considerable  freedom  of  motion, 
even  to  the  extent  of  rotation.  The  action  of  a  muscle 
is  to  flex  or  close  the  angle  of  a  joint,  when  it  is  situated 
in  the  angle  and  behind  the  joint ;  to  extend  when  in 
front  of  the  joint  or  over  the  summit  of  the  angle;  to 
abduct  or  adduct  when  on  the  side  of  the  joint  away  from 
or  toward  the  median  plane  of  the  body ;  to  rotate  if  so 
arranged  as  to  cross  from  one  side  to  the  other  in  its 
course. 

AH  muscles  are  not  equally  employed.  The  class  of 
animals  and  the  particular  use  to  which  each  is  put  have 
much  to  do  in  determining  which  muscles  are  most  fre- 


16 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


quently  called  into  requisition.  The  delicate  texture  of 
the  so-called  tenderloin  or  fillet  of  beef  is  due  to  its  being 
derived  from  a  group  of  muscles,  the  chief  use  of  which 
is  in  rearing,  and  since  the  unsexed  bovine  rarely  rears, 
these  muscles  are  so  seldom  called  into  play  as  to  leave 
them  practically  undeveloped,  and  therefore  very  tender. 

PHYSIOLOGY 

19.    Prehension  of  food.  —  The  taking  of  food  comes 
first  in  an  enumeration  of  the  physiological  processes  by 

means  of  which  ani- 
mals are  productive. 
The  chief  prehensile 
organ  in  the  horse  is 
the  lip,  in  cattle  and 
sheep  the  tongue,  and 
in  the  hog  the  snout. 

20.  Digestion.  —  In 
the  mouth  the  food  is 
comminuted  by  masti- 
cation so  as  to  be  more 
completely  accessible 

FIG    7  -  Surface  of  mucous  membrane  of  to  the  digestive  juices, 
the  intestine.    Showing  villi  with  central 

lacteal  duct  and  blood  vessels,  and  on  and   IS   acted   upon   by 

the  surf  ace  the  absorbing  epithelial  cells.  the  saliva  which  COm- 

mences  the  digestion  of  some  of  the  starches.  This  is 
continued  after  the  food  is  swallowed  into  the  stomach. 
Here  also  the  gastric  juices,  with  their  enzymes,  and  the 
hydrochloric  acid,  continue  the  conversion  of  the  raw 
materials  of  nutrition  presented  in  the  food  into  forms 
in  which  they  may  be  assimilated  into  the  blood  stream 
and  become  available  to  the  tissues  and  to  such  secreting 
organs  as  the  udder.  Digestion  is  completed  in  the  small 


THE  ANIMAL   MACHINE  17 

intestine,  where  the  pancreatic  juice  and  the  bile  finish 
the  conversion  of  the  starches  into  soluble  sugars  and 
split  the  fats  into  fatty  acids  and  glycerin,  respectively. 

21.  Assimilation.  —  Assimilation  takes  place  chiefly 
from  the  small  intestine  after  digestion  has  been  accom- 
plished (Fig.  7),  although  some  of  the  more  indigestible 
constituents  of  the  ration,  as  the  fiber,  undergo  a  special 


FIG.  8.  —  Side  view  of  internal  organs  of  mare.  1,  scapula ;  2,  humerus ; 
3,  ulna ;  4,  radius ;  5,  ribs ;  6,  vertebral  column ;  7,  ilium ;  8,  pubis  ; 
9,  ischium ;  10,  femur;  11,  tibia;  a,  heart;  b,  pulmonary  artery; 
c,  aorta ;  d,  stomach  ;  e,  liver ;  /,  cut  edge  of  diaphragm  ;  gg,  hh,  large 
colon ;  i,  small  intestine ;  k,  kidney ;  m,  small  colon ;  n,  uterus ; 
o,  rectum ;  p,  vagina ;  r,  urocyst  or  bladder  ;  s,  anus ;  t,  vulva. 

fermentative  disintegration  in  the  large  intestine,  the  diges- 
tible portion  being  assimilated  from  there.  In  ruminants 
the  food  is  bolted  and  passed  immediately  to  the  rumen 
or  paunch,  where  the  fiber  undergoes  some  fermentative 
changes,  but  it  is  later  regurgitated  to  the  mouth  to  be 
masticated  at  leisure  after  the  supply  has  been  secured. 
This  is  the  familiar  rumination  or  chewing  of  the  cud,  the 
cud  being  simply  a  mass  of  food  which  has  been  swallowed 


18  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

once  then  passed  back  to  the  mouth  from  the  paunch. 
It  is  eventually  swallowed  to  undergo  digestion  and  assimi- 
lation in  the  regular  way,  and  to  be  replaced  in  the  mouth, 
repeatedly,  by  other  portions  until  the  entire  contents  of 
the  paunch  have  been  disposed  of  in  this  way.  The  pig 
is  unlike  either  the  horse  (Fig.  8)  or  the  ruminating  cattle 
and  sheep,  which  are  strictly  herbivorous,  it  being  omniv- 
orous, eating  both  vegetable  and  animal  matter.  It  is 
also  monogastric,  having  but  one  stomach  like  the  horse, 
although  it  has  much  less  capacity  of  large  intestine,  and 
is  therefore  much  less  capable  of  digesting  a  bulky  ration 
than  the  horse. 

22.  Circulation.  —  The  blood  stream  serves  as  a  transit 
system,  through  which  the  digested  nutrient  material  is 
conveyed  to  the  tissues  and  organs  to  be  used  for  their 
repair  and  upbuilding  in  growth ;  to  be  stored  up  as  a 
reserve  fund  of  energy,  as  in  the  case  of  accumulated  fat ; 
to  furnish  the  essentials  for  glandular  secretion,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  udder ;  or  to  be  utilized  immediately,  as  energy, 
in  the  maintenance  of  body  temperature  or  functional 
activity  in  the  performance  of  work.  Digestion  com- 
pleted, it  remains  for  the  circulatory  system  to  accomplish 
the  assimilation  and  distribution  of  the  digested  food 
constituents. 

The  circulatory  system  consists  of  the  heart,  which 
serves  as  a  pump ;  arteries,  which  carry  the  blood,  after 
having  been  aerated  in  the  lungs  and  returned  to  the*  left 
side  of  the  heart,  to  the  tissues ;  and  the  veins,  which  return 
the  vitiated  blood  to  the  right  side  of  the  heart  and  from 
thence  to  the  lungs,  where  the  waste  products,  collected 
from  the  tissues,  are  discharged  as  carbon  dioxide  and  its 
red  cells  are  reloaded  with  a  fresh  supply  of  oxygen.  In 
addition  to  the  blood  the  lymph  is  circulated  through  the 


THE  ANIMAL   MACHINE  19 

tissues  themselves  without  being  confined  within  definite 
walls  except  in  the  main  vessels. 

23.  Nerve    control.  —  The    general    function    of    the 
nervous  system  is  to  exert  control  over  the  functions  of 
the  other  systems,  coordinating  all  movement  and  regu- 
lating all  vital  processes.     The  strength  and  resourceful- 
ness with  which  this  function  is  exerted  is  expressed  as 
nerve  force,  and  is  usually  most  marked  in  the  highest  bred 
individuals.     Nervousness  is  no  indication  of  nerve  force. 

The  whole  nervous  organization  is  comparable  to  a 
telegraph  system,  in  which  the  central  station  receives 
reports  and  proceeds  to  act  upon  them  in  communicating 
instructions,  for  execution,  to  other  parts,  usually  remote. 
Nerve  impulses  may  be  sensory  or  motor,  and  motor  im- 
pulses may  be  voluntary  or  involuntary,  depending  upon 
the  character  of  the  function  involved.  For  instance,  the 
horse  receives  a  certain  pressure  from  the  bit  representing 
an  idea  in  the  mind  of  his  rider  or  driver ;  the  sensory 
impulse  is  conveyed  to  the  brain  of  the  horse,  from  which 
is  sent  out  the  motor  impulse  which  results  in  the  execu- 
tion of  the  idea. 

REPRODUCTION 

24.  Impregnation.  —  Copulation  is  the  physical  act  by 
means  of  which  the  male  germ  cell,  or  spermatozoon,  is 
conveyed  to  the  genital  tract  of  the  female,  there  to  meet 
the  female  cell,  or  ovum,  recently  discharged  from  the 
ovary.     Any  prospective  breeding  animal  must  be  capable 
of  it.     The  female  will  only  submit  to  the  male  during  the 
period  of  osstrum,  or  heat,  at  which  time  a  Graffian  follicle 
in  the  ovary  is  maturing  and  a  ripe  ovum  is  liberated. 
Conception  takes  place  in  either  the  body  or  the  horns 
of  the  uterus  (Fig.  9) ,  depending  upon  the  species,  and  its 


20 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


occurrence,  except  in  rare  instances,  prohibits  the  sub- 
sequent appearance  of  oestrum. 

25.  Gestation.  —  The  duration  of  gestation  is  usually 
correlated  with  the  size  and  longevity  of  the  species,  being 
three  weeks  in  the  case  of  the  mouse  and  twenty-two 


FIG.  9.  —  Generative  organs  of  the  mare,  a,  right  ovary ;  6,  right  ovi- 
duct ;  c,  right  uterine  horn ;  d,  left  uterine  horn ;  e,  body  of  the 
uterus ;  e\,  vaginal  part  of  uterus  ;  €2,  mouth  of  uterus ;  /,  broad  liga- 
ment ;  /i,  suspensory  ligament  of  the  ovary ;  ft,  round  ligament ; 
g,  vagina;  h,  vulva;  i,  vulvar  cavity;  i\,  posteri  or  commissure: 
iz,  anterior  commissure ;  k,  muscle  constrictor  cunni ;  TO,  corpus 
cavernosum  vestibule ;  n,  abdominal  wall ;  o,  left  kidney ;  p,  left 
ureter  ;  r,  bladder ;  s,  urethra ;  t,  rectum  ;  u,  anus ;  v,  external  sphinc- 
ter muscle  of  anus ;  w,  point  where  the  levator  ani  muscle  passes 
under  the  external  sphincter ;  x,  levator  ani  muscle ;  y,  longitudinal 
fibers  of  the  rectum  ;  y\,  posterior  band  of  fibers ;  z,  muscle  constric- 
tor vestibule;  1,  utero-ovarian  artery;  li,  branch  to  the  ovary; 
h,  branch  to  the  horn  of  the  uterus ;  2,  external  uterine  artery  ; 
3,  umbilical  artery ;  4  and  5,  sections  through  pelvic  bone. 

months  in  the  case  of  the  elephant.  There  is  established 
following  conception,  and  through  the  medium  of  a  special 
development  of  the  walls  of  the  pregnant  uterus  and  of 
the  membranes  enveloping  the  embryo,  a  temporary  cir- 
culatory system,  by  means  of  which  the  blood  of  the  dam 


THE  ANIMAL   MACHINE 


21 


is  passed  into  the  foetal  circulation,  through  the  arteries 
of  the  umbilical  or  navel  cord  and  back  through  the  veins 
of  the  same  structure  into  the  general  venous  circulation 
of  the  dam,  to  begin  another  cycle.  By  this  means  the 
foetus  is  nourished  until  after  birth,  when  the  establish- 
ment of  respiration  and  digestion  enables  him  to  aerate 
his  own  blood  and  nourish  his  own  tissues.  All  connection 
with  his  mother  is  cut  off  with  the  severing  of  the  cord, 
which  takes  place  soon  after  birth. 

26.    Parturition.  —  Parturition  is  accomplished  by  the 
general  relaxation  of  the  ligaments  which  unite  the  bones 


FIG.  10.  —  Pelvis  of  the  mare,  showing  the  dimensions  of  the  pelvic 
girdle  through  which  the  foetus  passes  in  delivery.  A,  coupling; 
B,  point  of  the  hip ;  C,  hip  joint ;  D,  point  of  the  buttocks. 

constituting  the  pelvic  girdle  (Fig.  10) ,  through  which  the 
f  cetuo  must  pass,  and  the  soft  structures  of  the  pelvic  and 
perineal  regions,  followed  by  labor.  Normally  the  foetus  is 
presented  head  first,  with  the  chin  resting  on  the  extended 


22  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

fore  legs  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  a  conical  protrusion. 
This  helps  in  the  dilation  of  the  parts  involved  as  the  con- 
tractions of  labor  gradually  cause  the  expulsion  of  the 
foetus.  Not  only  do  the  structures  of  the  dam  favor  this 
expulsion  by  their  relaxation,  but  the  suppleness  and 
flexibility  of  the  foetus  itself  materially  assists.  The  head, 
at  this  age,  is  capable  of  considerable  compression  and 
alteration  in  form  to  accommodate  itself  to  the  restricted 
passage  through  which  it  is  forced,  while  the  chest  may 
have  its  vertical  dimension  flattened  by  the  bending  back- 
ward of  the  spinous  processes  of  the  thoracic  vertebrae,  to 
which  this  dimension  of  the  chest  is  largely  due.  In  the 
case  of  multiple 'births,  as  in  the  sow,  considerable  time 
may  elapse,  with  apparently  complete  cessation  of  labor, 
between  the  expulsion  of  each  foetus. 

27.  Lactation.  —  There  is  naturally  a  distinct  correla- 
tion between  reproduction  and  lactation.  As  pregnancy 
advances  lactation  diminishes,  if  the  female  is  milking  at 
the  time,  accompanied  by  a  corresponding  increase  in 
weight  due  to  the  deposition  of  fat,  in  addition  to  the 
growth  of  the  foetus.  Some  females  cannot  become  preg- 
nant while  suckling  young.  There  is  usually  a  complete 
cessation  of  lactation  for  a  period  prior  to  parturition, 
although  some  cows  will  milk  persistently  for  years  and 
can  hardly  be  dried  off,  though  calving  regularly.  With 
the  approach  of  parturition  the  udder  manifests  a  return 
of  functional  activity,  "  springing,"  as  we  say,  indicating 
the  increase  in  size  and  fullness  of  form  most  marked  in 
females  pregnant  for  the  first  time.  Such  udders  finally 
secrete  a  characteristic  waxy  material,  and  finally  milk,  a 
few  days  or  hours  before  parturition.  After  the  birth  of 
the  foetus,  the  expulsion  of  the  membranes  constituting  the 
afterbirth  and  the  ultimate  contraction  of  the  uterus,  the 


THE  ANIMAL   MACHINE  23 

great  volume  of  blood  supply  furnished  the  uterus  and 
foetus  is  diverted  to  the  mammary  apparatus,  stimulating 
it  to  the  maximum  of  functional  capacity,  as  noted  in  the 
fresh  cow.  The  first  material  secreted  by  the  udder  differs 
both  physically  and  chemically  from  milk,  being  thick 
and  yellowish  in  appearance  and  possessed  of  special  pur- 
gative properties  designed  to  remove  the  foecal  matter, 
meconium,  that  has  accumulated  during  foetal  develop- 
ment, as  the  first  operation  of  the  new-born  digestive 
apparatus. 

PATHOLOGY 

28.  Abnormal  structure  impairs  function.  —  The  rela- 
tion between  structure  and  function  is  intimate  and  re- 
ciprocal. Functional  limitations  are  determined  by  the 
structure,  while  the  development  of  the  structure  itself  is, 
in  a  measure,  responsive  to  the  activity  of  its  function. 
Carrying  one's  arm  in  a  sling  continuously  will  cause 
such  complete  atrophy  or  wasting  of  the  part  as  to  seri- 
ously impair  its  usefulness,  while  the  heart  of  the  athlete 
undergoes  hypertrophy,  or  an  over-development,  in  an 
effort  to  meet  the  excessive  demands  made  upon  it.  The 
removal  of  one  kidney  may  induce  a  compensatory  hyper- 
trophy of  the  other  one.  An  active  secreting  mammary 
gland  is  "  dried  off  "  by  arresting  its  functional  stimulus, 
the  milking  process,  while  the  rudimentary  gland  of  the 
male,  even,  may  be  rendered  capable  of  some  functional 
activity  by  persistent  stimulation. 

It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  but  a  slight  structural 
defect  may  seriously  impair  the  functional  capacity  of  the 
part  •  or  the  individual.  It  is  not  sufficient  simply  to 
detect  the  presence  of  an  existing  defect  or  abnormality ; 
its  true  significance,  in  interfering  with  the  function  of 
the  part,  must  be  foretold. 


PART  II 
THE  PRACTICE    OF  JUDGING 


25 


CHAPTER  III 
DEFINITION  AND  PROCEDURE 

JUDGING  is  not  an  exact  science  in  which  determinations 
can  be  made  with  mathematical  precision,  but  results  are 
more  or  less  approximate,  depending  upon  the  accuracy 
with  which  observations  are  made  and  the  correctness  of 
the  judgment  with  which  decisions  are  reached.  Dis- 
crepancies may  be  due  either  to  inaccuracy  in  observation, 
to  error  in  judgment  or  to  both. 

29.  Judging.  —  Judging  consists  of  making  a  thorough 
analysis  of  each  individual,  then  measuring  them  to  a 
standard  —  the  ideal.     Four  steps  are  involved. 

30.  Information.  —  First,  information.     In  order  to  be 
consistent  a  judge  must  have  a  definite  notion  of  what 
constitutes  merit.     Full  information,  therefore,  as  to  indi- 
vidual  excellence,   market   demand,   and   breed   require- 
ments is  essential  to  insure  selection  to  the  correct  ideal 
or  measurement  to  an  accepted  standard. 

31.  Observation.  —  Second,    observation.     The    study 
of  animal  form  requires  the  keenest  powers  of  observation 
to  be  exercised  with  greatest  accuracy.     The  possession  of 
an  instrument  does  not  necessarily  insure  proficiency  in 
its  use ;    one  may  have  acquired  a  definite  mind  picture 
of  what  he  seeks  yet  fail  to  recognize  it  when  it  is  seen. 
Observation  is  the  application  of  the  standard,  the  actual 
measurement  of  merit  by  means  of  which  a  close  estimate 
or  a  careful  analysis  may  be  made. 

27 


28  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

32.  Comparison.  —  Third,  comparison.     It  is  one  thing 
to  buy  a  carload  of   animals  that  must  all   conform  to 
specified  requirements,  but  quite  another  matter  to  pick 
out  the  first,  second,  third  and  fourth  best  from  a  car  lot 
offering.     It  may  be  simple  enough  to  make  analyses  and 
give  descriptions  of  any  number  of  individuals,  noting 
carefully  all  commendable  features  as  well  as  defects,  yet 
most  difficult  to  balance  a  superior  head  and  neck,  but 
low  back  of  one,  against  the  good  back  and  deficient  hind- 
quarters of  another.     The  first  described  is  observation; 
the  second,  comparison.     The  judge  must  do  this  before 
he  can  ascertain,  in  the  aggregate,  the  relative  merits  of 
the  different  individuals  under  his  consideration  and  before 
he  can  arrive  at  a  final  conclusion  as  to  their  placing  in 
competition. 

33.  Conclusion.  —  Fourth,   conclusion.     The  last  step 
consists  in  weighing  the  evidence  collected  by  the  two 
preceding  steps  and  returning  a  verdict  thereon. 

When  a  decision  is  once  made  it  is  most  gratifying  to 
an  exhibitor  or  seller,  as  well  as  most  assuring  to  the  judge, 
if  he  is  able  to  give  full  reasons  for  having  made  the 
awards  as  he  has  done. 

34.  System    in    judging.  —  The    most    comprehensive 
judging  is  secured  by  a  systematic  procedure.     It  is  true 
many  good  judges  do  their  work  intuitively,  but  even 
intuition  may  be  systematized  to  advantage.     Judging 
must  be  done  with  a  reasonable  degree  of  dispatch,  al- 
though time  often  serves  to  clear  up  certain  points  which 
at  first  seem  obscure.     The  judge  is,  therefore,  justified  in 
using  some  deliberation,  although  his  observations  should 
be  so  conducted  as  to  enable  him  to  form  a  most  definite 
and  accurate  impression  in  the  least  time. 

36.    First  impressions  are  lasting  and,  if  made  under 


DEFINITION  AND  PROCEDURE  29 

normal  conditions,  are  most  likely  to  be  correct.  The 
judge  should  see  to  it,  therefore,  that  the  first  view  he 
takes  will  be  fair  to  both  the  animal  and  himself.  Ex- 
perienced showmen  and  salesmen  appreciate  the  impor- 
tance of  this  first  view  in  establishing  favor  for  or  preju- 
dice against  the  animal  they  are  exhibiting.  If  they  have 
an  animal  possessed  of  real  merit,  they  endeavor  to  enter 
the  ring  at  such  a  time,  usually  either  first  or  last,  or  to 
take  such  a  position  as  will  insure  the  judge's  having  one 
good,  impressive  look  at  the  particular  individual  in  which 
their  interest  is  centered.  This  accomplished,  they  feel 
assured  of  careful  consideration,  in  turn,  with  no  danger 
of  being  smothered  in  a  large  class,  as  sometimes  happens. 
Given  an  inferior  animal,  however,  the  attendant  makes 
his  entry  as  inconspicuous  as  possible  among  the  others 
in  order  to  avoid  undue  exposure  of  his  exhibit's  worthless- 
ness,  in  the  hope  of  being  left  in  a  higher  position  than  he 
truly  deserves. 

36.  Conditions  under  which  shown.  —  In  order  not  to 
be  misled  in  his  observations  the  judge  should  understand 
and  allow  for  the  conditions  under  which  the  animals  are 
shown.     It  seems  to  be   considered   legitimate  to  take 
advantage  of  everything  that  rightfully  belongs  to  an 
animal  so  long  as  there  is  no  real  misrepresentation.     It  is 
perfectly  proper   to   pose   an   individual  for   inspection. 
That  is  simply  putting  his  best,  foot  forward,  as  it  were, 
and  it  enables  the  judge  to  better  see  him  as  he  really  is. 
Standing  a  horse  uphill,  for  instance,  accentuates  his  good 
points,  yet  there  is  no  deception  attempted,  and  to  stand 
him  downhill  would   be  manifestly  unfair  both   to  the 
horse  and  to  the  judge. 

37.  Posing.  —  The  most  extreme  posing  encountered  is 
the  so-called  camping  of  horses.     Practiced  in  moderation, 


30  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

camping  is  justifiable  on  the  ground  that  it  serves  to  keep 
a  horse  on  all  four  feet,  and  is  a  protection  to  any  one 
passing  about  him,  since  the  horse  must  assume  a  natural 
standing  position  before  he  is  able  to  kick  or  strike. 
Overdone,  camping  is  unsightly  and  may  be  resorted  to 
for  the  purpose  of  making  a  low  back  or  bent  hocks  appear 
straight. 

Cattle  and  sheep  should  be  stood  up  on  their  feet  to 
enable  the  judge  to  get  a  good  look  at  them,  but  they  may 
be  held  in  such  a  manner  as  to  materially  alter  their  lines, 
handling  qualities  in  the  former  and  conformation  in  the 
latter.  Such  trickery  can  hardly  be  accepted  as  proper, 
neither  can  the  holding  up  of  a  hog's  back  by  keeping 
down  his  nose  in  quest  of  corn  in  the  litter  of  the  show 
ring,  after  having  taught  him  by  experience  to  expect  it 
there. 


CHAPTER  IV 

FEATURES  OF  ANIMAL  FORM    TO   BE  CON- 
SIDERED  IN  JUDGING 

38.  General    appearance    is    determined    by    all    those 
features  which  may  be  observed  at  a  casual  glance,  and 
usually  includes  a  number  of  the  individual  features  here- 
after enumerated. 

39.  Height  or  stature  is  a  consideration  in  horses  only, 
as  a  rule,  in  which  it  is  measured  at  the  highest  point  of 
the  withers  and  is  expressed  in  hands,  four  inches  to  the 
hand.     Fractions  of  a  hand  are  given  in  inches  most  com- 
monly, as  fifteen  hands,  two  inches,  or  15-2,  when  the 
height  is  sixty-two  inches. 

40.  Weight,  as  registered  by  the  scales,  is  not  stated 
exactly,  a  unit  of  twenty-five  pounds  being  the  division 
usually  allowed  in  the  case  of  horses  and  cattle  on  account 
of  possible  variations  of  less  amount  being  due  to  feeding 
and  watering. 

41.  Scale.  —  Height    and   weight  combined  constitute 
scale. 

42.  Style  is  especially  marked  in  horses,  constituting 
a  most  important  feature  of  show,  but  greatly  enhancing 
the  appearance  of  any  class  of  animals ;  it  may  be  mani- 
fested by  cattle,  sheep  and  hogs  as  well  as  horses. 

43.  Symmetry  is  the  result  of  the  balancing  of  parts  in 
such  proportions  as  to  give  an  even,  uniform,  harmonious 
appearance  of  the  whole.     It  is  as  though  the  assembled 

31 


32  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

parts  had  been  constructed  the  one  for  the  other  rather 
than  formed  independently. 

44.  Type  is  the  sum  total  of  those  features  the  possession 
of  which  enables  an  individual  to  meet  the  definite  re- 
quirements of  special  service  or  production.     It  is  mani- 
fested by  that  form  and  contour  which  mark  the  distinc- 
tion between  an  individual  that  is  blocky  from  one  that 
is  angular,  for  instance. 

45.  Conformation.  —  Type  has  to  do  with  the  general 
structure  resulting  from  the  assembling  of  all  component 
parts,  while  conformation  involves  the  individual  structure 
of  each  of  these  parts  as  a  unit.     The  strength  of  a  chain 
is  measured  by  the  strength  of  its  weakest  link,  therefore 
defection  in  one  part  may  offset  an  otherwise  perfect 
structure.     However,  some  parts,  as  the  hock  joint  of  a 
horse  or  the  loin  of  a  steer,  for  instance,  have  greater  rela- 
tive importance   than  others ;  thus  a  deficiency  in  them 
would  have  more  influence  on  the  serviceability  of  the 
whole  than  a  corresponding   inferiority  of  structure    in 
some  other  part.     Appreciation  of  conformation,  therefore, 
consists  not  alone  in  the  detection  of  points,  both  superior 
and  inferior,  but  in  attaching  to  each  due  significance  as 
bearing  on  the  general  excellence  of  the  animal  or  inter- 
ference with  its  adaptability  for  the  purpose  to  which  it 
is  to  be  put. 

46.  Quality  is  that  which  pertains  to  the  character  of 
the  individual  unit  of  structure,  the  cell,  and  the  propor- 
tion of  them  to  the  intercellular  substance  by  which  they 
are  united  in  the  organization  of  tissue.     Quality  is  mani- 
fested in  the  texture  of  the  tissue  such  as  the  hide,  hair 
and  bone  especially,  and  by  the  general  finish  and  refine- 
ment of  the  animal  structure  as  a  whole.     Quality  estab- 
lishes the  grade  of  the  animal  structure  and  its  products. 


FEATURES   OF  ANIMAL   FORM  33 

More  highly  organized  tissues  are  the  result  of  better 
breeding. 

47.  Substance  refers  to  the  size  and  number  of  the 
individual  units  of  structure  and  the  gross  amount  of  the 
tissue  into  which  they  are  organized.     It  is  manifested  by 
the  scale  of  the  animal  in  general  and  the  amount  of  any 
one  tissue  in  particular,  such  as  bone.     Quality  and  sub- 
stance are  not  correlated,  but  more  or  less  of  each  is  essen- 
tial, depending  upon  the  type  of  the  animal. 

48.  Condition.  —  An  animal  is  in  condition  when  in 
that  state  most  favorable  to  the  performance  or  produc- 
tion peculiar  to  his  class  or  type.     Condition  is  the  result 
of  fitting,  a  process  involving  a  balance  between  feed  and 
work  during  which  the  animal  accumulates  or  reduces 
fat  until  the  optimum  degree  of  obesity  is  attained.     In 
block  animals  and  even  in  market  draft  horses  the  maxi- 
mum degree  of  fatness  is  desired,  and  its  accumulation  is 
favored  by  most  liberal   feeding  of  a  wide,  fat-forming 
ration  and  frequently  almost  complete  prohibition  of  exer- 
cise, while  the  race  horse  and  dairy  cow  are  capable  of 
their  best  performance  when  their  normal  amount  of  fat 
is  reduced  to  the  minimum  by  a  course  of  exercise  of  their 
respective  functions  which  is  offset  only  by  a  carefully 
guarded  narrow  ration. 

49.  Constitution  represents  such  capacity  of  the  vital 
functions,  respiration,  circulation  and  digestion  especially, 
as  will  insure  longevity,  fecundity  and  maximum  efficiency 
in  performance  or  production.     It  is  indicated  chiefly  by 
a  large,  open  nostril,  the  spring  and  length  of  the  rib, 
both  fore  and  back,  a  sleek  appearance  of  coat,  an  ex- 
pregsion  of  vigor  in  the  eye  and  countenance  and  a  general 
appearance  of  thrift  about  the  animal,  although  the  latter 
evidences  of  constitution  may  all  be  temporarily  impaired 


34  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

by  ill  health.  Constitution  is  of  greatest  importance  in 
breeding,  feeding  and  working  animals. 

60.  Temperament  is  the  term  by  which  the  nature  of 
the  nerve  control  over  the  functions  in  general  is  desig- 
nated. There  are  two  classes  of  temperaments,  first,  the 
nervous,  in  which  the  nervous  mechanism  operates  in  such 
a  way  as  to  cause  the  animal  to  manifest  an  active,  snappy 
manner,  keenly  alive  to  what  is  going  on  about  him, 
possessing  unusual  nerve  force  and  even  nervousness; 
second,  the  lymphatic  or  phlegmatic,  in  which  the  nerve 
factor  is  apparently  less  acute,  movements  being  executed 
more  slowly,  although  preferably  not  in  a  dull,  sluggish 
manner,  and  there  is  a  marked  tendency  to  feed  and  rest 
well  with  little  inclination  toward  much  activity  or  con- 
cern. Temperament  is  a  constitutional,  not  a  mental, 
feature. 

51.  Disposition  is  the  mental  attitude  of  an  animal, 
independent  of  intelligence,  and  reflected  by  his  cheerful, 
willing,  obedient  responsiveness,  or  sour,  crabbed  rebel- 
lion. Disposition  is  naturally  of  most  importance  in  the 
horse  and  dairy  cow,  animals  in  most  intimate  association 
with  the  husbandman. 

62.  Sex  character  is  the  evidence,  other  than  the  pres- 
ence of  the  sex  organs,  of  the  one  sex  or  the  other.  Mas- 
culinity is  evidenced  by  an  extraordinary  development  of 
the  forehand  or  forequarters,  the  crest,  the  strength  of  the 
face  line,  the  hardness  of  feature,  burliness,  and  the  bold, 
domineering  manner,  suggestive  of  the  impressive  sire. 
Femininity,  on  the  other  hand,  is  expressed  by  the  absence 
of  special  development  in  the  fore  end,  a  lightness  of 
shoulder  and  neck,  fineness  of  feature,  and  a  sweet, 
matronly  expression  and  appearance.  There  is  a  correla- 
tion between  evidence  of  masculinity  on  the  one  hand  and 


FEATURES   OF  ANIMAL   FORM  35 

both  virility  and  prepotency  in  the  male,  on  the  other; 
while  a  female  which  lacks  femininity  may  not  only  fail 
to  breed  regularly  but  an  absolutely  staggy  appearance, 
associated  as  it  is,  usually,  with  more  or  less  continuous 
O3strum  and  inability  to  conceive,  has  been  due  in  some 
cases  to  the  existence  of  hermaphrodism,  in  which  there 
is  a  more  or  less  imperfect  development  of  the  essential 
organs  of  both  sexes  in  the  same  individual.  The  impor- 
tance of  sex  character  is  confined,  of  course,  to  breeding 
males  and  females,  although  stallions  are  sometimes 
favored  for  show  purposes  on  account  of  the  boldness 
which  characterizes  their  performance. 

63.  Breed  character  or  type.  —  A  breed  is  a  group  of 
individuals  possessing  distinctive  characters  not  common 
to  other  members  of  the  same  species  and  so  firmly  fixed 
as  to  be  uniformly  transmitted.  Breed  type  is  the  sum 
total  of  those  distinctive  characteristics  by  which  the 
breed  group  may  be  differentiated,  as  size,  form,  peculiari- 
ties of  conformation,  color  and  markings,  shape  of  the 
head,  and  horns,  if  any,  with  the  especial  and  distinctive 
features  of  performance  or  production.  It  is  with  these 
distinctive  characters  that  the  judge  is  concerned  in  the 
judging  of  breeding  classes  or  the  selection  of  breeding 
stock.  Utility,  however,  should  be  the  basis  of  distinc- 
tion. In  order  to  maintain  breed  identity,  all  distinguish- 
ing features  should  receive  consideration,  but  those  of  a 
utility  character,  which  relate  to  performance  or  produc- 
tion, should  be  stressed  more  than  such  matters  as  color, 
markings,  or  the  shape  of  ear,  horn  or  snout.  It  has  been 
stated  that  the  best  representatives  of  each  of  the  draft 
horse  breeds,  for  instance,  should  approach  very  closely 
to  the  same  general  type.  It  is  most  essential  that  they 
all  be  primarily  of  draft  type,  but  if  the  only  difference 


36  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

between  a  Percheron  and  a  Belgian  is  to  be  color,  and  not 
even  color  can  be  depended  upon  to  distinguish  a  Clydes- 
dale from  a  Shire,  what  is  the  use  of  attempting  to  estab- 
lish-breed  identities? 

64.  Factors    determining    breed    characters.  —  As    a 
matter  of  fact,  these  distinctive  characters  of  breeds  are 
the  result  of  either  or  all  of  those  agencies  that  have  been 
operative   during   the   formative   period   of    the   breeds. 
They  are  the  foundation  stock  or  the  origin  in  blood,  the 
environment  by  which  these  hereditary  endowments  have 
been  molded,  or  the  geographic  origin,  and  the  ideal  or 
purpose  to  which  selection  has  been  made.     The  last  is,  of 
course,  the  final  and  determining  factor  in  every  case,  and 
may  be  sufficient  of  itself  to  account  for  the  differential 
features  of  two  breeds.     The  judge   is   concerned  with 
the  origin,  history  and   development   of  the  breeds  only 
in  so  far  as  they  have  been  factors  in  the  creation  of  breed 
type  and  character.     There  is  reflected,  more  or  less,  in 
the  typical   representatives  of  the  different  breeds,  the 
three  factors  which  have   influenced  their  development. 
Since  there  can  be  bred  on,  only  such  characters  as  have 
originally  been  bred  into  a  breed,  there  are  good  economic 
reasons  why  these  distinctive  and  useful  breed  characters 
should  be  recognized  by  the  judge  and  their  true  signifi- 
cance appreciated. 

65.  The  best  breed.  —  There  is  scarcely  a  breed  of 
horses,  cattle,  sheep  or  swine  that  does  not  possess,  by 
virtue  of  one  or  more  of  these  factors,  some  one  character 
in  greater  degree  than  does  any  other  breed,  and  it  is, 
on  this  account,  better  adapted  to  some  particular  per- 
formance or  production.     By  guarding  zealously  in  our 
selections  these  characters,  thus  retaining  the  integrity  and 
identity  of  the  breed,  we  are  insuring  stock  that  is  much 


FEATURES   OF  ANIMAL   FORM  37 

better  adapted  to  meet  the  requirements  of  a  wider  range 
of  usefulness. 

56.  Objectionable   breed   characters.  —  Unfortunately 
not  all  features  by  which  breeds  may  be  characterized 
are  desirable  ones.     Some  most  objectionable  characteris- 
tics are  transmitted  with  unfailing  regularity,  and  it  is  as 
important  that  they  should  be  recognized  and  eliminated, 
so  far  as  is  possible,  as  that  the  good  features  should  be 
carefully  retained.     Fair  treatment  of  all  breeds,  therefore, 
requires   that   these   exceptions   to   the   desirable   breed 
character  or  type  shall  be  noted. 

57.  Way  of  going.  —  The  way  of  going  is  a  definition 
in  itself.     It  is  of   principal  importance  in  the  horse,  al- 
though the  movements  of  all  classes  of  animals  are  taken 
into  account  in  judging.     The  particular  gait  the  horse 
goes,  the  features  of  the  stride  at  that  gait,  the  pace  or 
rate  at  which  he  moves,  the  action  displayed,  and  the 
manner  in  which  he  places  or  sets  himself  while  going  are 
all  features  of  the  horse's  way  of  going.     In  the  other  classes 
of  live  stock  it  is  only  necessary  to  note  whether  or  not 
the  animal  goes  well  upon  his  toes,  with  pasterns  supported 
and  without  cramped  hocks  as  in  the  case  of  sheep  and 
swine,  or,  in  such  a  way  as  to  indicate  absence  of  founder 
or  weakness  in  hind  legs,  as  well  as  to  exhibit  the  style 
and  animation  desired  in  breeding  and  show  cattle. 

58.  Soundness  is   that  condition   in  which  an  animal 
is  physically  capable  of  performing  the  ordinary  service 
of  his  type  or  class ;  anything  that  renders  him  incapable, 
in  any  degree,  constitutes  an  unsoundness.     Soundness 
is  most  commonly  considered  in  connection  with  horses, 
but  its  meaning  may  be  extended  to  include  all  classes  of 
live  stock.     For  instance,  a  cow  that  has  lost  one  quarter 
of  the  udder,  a  hog  that  is  so  badly  broken  down  in  the 


38  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

pasterns  that  he  can  only  get  about  the  feed  lot  with 
difficulty,  or  a  bull  with  only  one  testicle  in  his  scrotum  or 
so  weak  in  the  hocks  that  he  cannot  mount  a  cow,  are 
almost  as  much  incapacitated  as  is  the  horse  that  is  lame. 

59.  Breeding    unsoundness.  —  Any    condition   which 
may  prevent  a  male  animal  from  impregnating  the  female, 
or  the  female  from  delivering  a  live,  normal  young,  con- 
stitutes breeding  unsoundness.     Furthermore,  the  posses- 
sion  by   a   breeding    animal   of   any    condition    which, 
transmitted  to  its  offspring,  may  partially  or  completely 
incapacitate  it,  is  also  a  breeding  unsoundness.     How- 
ever, the  transmissibility  of  many  of  the  so-called  heredi- 
tary unsoundnesses  has  not  been  established  ;  even  roaring 
and  moon  blindness  in  horses,  the  only  two  things  for 
which  stallions  are  disqualified  in  France,  where  the  most 
comprehensive  system   of  inspection  is,  are  now  believed 
to  be  more  frequently  the  result  of   preexisting  influenza 
in  the  one  case,  and  of  an  enzootic  infection  in  the  other, 
than  of  hereditary  influences.     Yet,  on  the  other  hand, 
almost  any  unsoundness  of  a  male  or  female  may  manifest 
itself  in  the  get  with  more  than  casual  uniformity,  thus 
proving  its  transmissible  nature. 

60.  Defective  conformation.  —  Unsoundness,  or,   more 
particularly,    the   defective   conformation   which   predis- 
poses to  it,  is  of  considerable  importance  to  the  judge 
of  any  class  of  stock,  but  on  account  of  the  more  complex 
nature  of  the  horse's  function  and  the  greater  variety  of 
conditions  by  which  that  function  may  be  impaired,  dis- 
cussion of  the  subject  will  be  directed,  chiefly,  to  the 
horse. 

61.  Unsoundness  in  horses  may  be  of  eyes,  wind  or 
limb.     Mental  defects  are  usually  included  under  vices. 
So  far  as  show  ring  judging  goes,  the  matter  of  unsoundness 


FEATURES   OF  ANIMAL  FORM  •'">'.» 

is  of  no  concern  to  the  judge  himself,  it  being  settled  ac- 
cording to  rule  by  the  official  veterinarian,  but  one  should 
not  be  wholly  dependent  upon  the  veterinarian  for  the 
detection  and  disposition  of  ordinary  unsoundnesses. 
There  is  no  difficulty  experienced  in  diagnosing  bad 
eyes  if  the  lens  has  become  opaque  or  the  cornea  clouded, 
yet  serious  conditions  may  exist  in  the  eye  without  any 
such  manifestations.  These  require  the  skilled  practi- 
tioner to  identify  them.  A  diseased  condition  of  any 
standing  will  result  in  atrophy  or  shrinking  of  the  eyeball, 
just  the  same  as  a  lame  foot  gradually  becomes  smaller. 
This  reduction  in  size  causes  the  eyeball  to  occupy  less 
space  in  the  orbit,  with  the  result  that  it  retracts  deeper 
into  the  head,  and  the  upper  lid,  not  being  distended  by 
the  eyeball  any  longer,  looses  its  even  curvature  and  be- 
comes notched  with  an  angle.  A  widely  dilated  pupil 
or  one  that  does  not  respond  promptly  to  changes  in  the 
amount  of  light  admitted,  as  when  the  eye  is  covered  with 
the  hand  and  then  quickly  exposed  again,  is  suggestive  of 
imperfect  vision. 

62.  Unsoundness  of  wind  includes  the  so-called  roaring 
and  heaves.  While  roaring  may  be  understood  to  be  any 
kind  of  noise  made  in  breathing,  technically  roaring  is 
made  upon  inspiration  only  and  is  due  to  the  paralysis 
of  one  of  the  cartilages  of  the  larynx,  that  cartilaginous 
sound  box  with  which  the  trachea  or  windpipe  begins. 

Horses  with  bullish  necks  that  are  thick  in  the  throttle 
and  have  a  narrow  angle  between  the  branches  of  the  lower 
jaw  may  make  a  distinct  noise  when  pulled,  especially  on 
a  curb  bit,  due  to  the  compression  of  the  larynx.  This 
noise,  like  that  due  to  pressure  from  any  other  cause,  is 
most  noticeable  upon  expiration  and  is  relieved  as  soon 
as  the  horse  is  stopped  and  the  head  released,  while  true 


40  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

roaring  may  continue  till  the  breathing  slows  down  and 
may  even  be  induced  by  threatening  to  strike  the  horse. 

Heaves  are  detected  by  the  violent  expiration  when 
the  horse  is  exercised,  the  short,  dry  cough,  the  continual 
dilation  of  the  nostrils  and  the  double  lift  in  the  flank  on 
expiration,  the  ordinary  expulsion  of  the  breath  being 
followed  by  a  second  additional  effort. 

63. ,  Unsoundness  of  limb  involves  the  structure  of  the 
foot,  the  bones,  especially  at  the  joints,  the  ligaments  and 
the  tendons.  Founder  (Fig.  12),  the  previous  existence  of 


&tKr^\ 


FIG.  12.  —  Shod  and  unshod  hoofs  in  founder. 

which,  unless  promptly  overcome,  is  indicated  by  the  dip 
in  the  wall  of  the  toe,  the  dropping  of  the  sole,  the  un- 
even ringlike  growth  of  the  horn,  and,  most  important  of 
all,  the  peculiar  going  on  the  heels ;  contraction  of  heels 
or  soles ;  cracks  and  thrush  are  of  the  first  class.  An 
exostosis  is  a  bony  growth,  the  result  of  an  inflammation 
in  the  bone  which  causes  a  rapid  throwing  out  of  bone 
cells  similar  to  the  formation  of  "  proud  flesh  "  in  the  soft 
tissue.  Exostoses  located  at  definite  points  are  specifically 
designated  as  spavin  (Fig.  13),  when  the  hock  is  involved, 
ringbone  (Fig.  14)  high  or  low,  when  at  the  first  or 
second  pastern  joint,  respectively,  splint  when  along  the 
splint  bones  of  the  cannon.  The  seriousness  of  the  ex- 
ostoses  depends  upon  the  extent  to  which  the  function 
of  the  part  is  involved.  After  the  acute  inflammatory 
stage  has  passed  the  exostosis  may  merely  interfere  me- 


FEATURES   OF  ANIMAL   FORM 


41 


chanically,  by  its  presence,  with  the  action  of  the  part, 

all  pain  having  subsided.     In  some  instances,  the  process 

may  automatically  overcome  the  primary 

condition    which   caused   it.     If    the   ex- 

ostosis  constituting  a  spavin  or  a  ringbone, 

for  instance,  becomes  sufficiently  extensive 

to  obliterate  the  joint  about  which  it  has 

grown,  thereby  preventing  all  movement, 

the  pain  of  motion  in  that  part  and  the 

coincident  lameness  will  be  removed.    This 

process  is  called  anchylosis,  and  accounts 

for  the  fact  that  a  great  big  so-called  jack 

spavin  may  cause  no  lameness,  while  the 

most  acute  pain  and  lameness  will  attend 

an  occult  spavin  when  there  is,  as  yet, 

scarcely    any    enlarge- 

ment.    The    joints    in-  Fl5*-  13.  —  Leg 

•  .          showing      large 

volved  in  both  spavin  spavin. 
and  ringbone  are  not 
the  essential  joints  of  those  parts,  and 
they  can,  therefore,  be  dispensed  with 
and  cause  no  serious  interference  with 
function.  Exostosis  is  usually  a  sequel 
of  or  accompanies  an  inflammation  of 
the  joint  surface,  called  arthritis,  as  in 
spavin,  although  it  may  be  independ- 
ent of  the  joint,  as  in  sidebone,  and, 
usually,  in  splint.  The  lameness  due 
to  an  arthritis  is  most  marked  when 
the  horse  is  first  taken  out  after  a  long 
rest  preceded  by  hard  work,  and  gradually  disappears 
more  or  less  as  the  horse  "  warms  out  of  it."  The  pres- 
ence of  an  exostosis  is  best  made  out  by  comparing  the 


at  right  normal  leg 


42 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


corresponding  joints  or  regions  in  the  two  legs.  Many 
normal  but  rough  joints  may  be  suspected  until  it  is  de- 
termined that  both  hocks  or  all  four  pas- 
tern joints,  as  the  case  may  be,  are 
symmetrical.  Any  deviation  in  the  nor- 
mal outline  of  the  joint  or  bone  that  is 
not  duplicated  should  be  carefully  investi- 
gated. This  rule  does  not  always  hold, 
however,  as  two  spavins  or  more  than  one 
ringbone  may  manifest  themselves  at  the 
same  time.  The  sidebone  may  present  no 
enlargement  or  alteration  in  form  what- 
ever, the  lateral  cartilage,  normally  elastic 
and  springing  upon  pres- 
sure, simply  becoming 
FIG.  15.  —  Leg  hard  and  unyielding  as  a 

showing  curb.  ,         ,.      .  .„        . 

result  of  the  ossification. 
Ligaments  are  differentiated  from  ten- 
dons by  the  fact  that  they  unite  bone  to 
bone,   while  the    tendon    unites    muscle 
to  bone.     The  ligaments  most  likely  to 
become  the  seat  of  an  unsoundness  are 
the    great    suspensory    ligament,   which 
sustains  the  fetlock  joint,  on  the  same 
principle  as  a  truss  under  a  box  car,  the 
ligamentous    structure    at   the    back   of 
the    fetlock  joint   with    which   the  sus- 
pensory ligament  is  related  and  the  curb  FlG     16  _  Lt 
ligament  at  the  back  of  the  hock  (Fig.  15) .      showing  capped 
Rupture  of  this  suspensory  ligament   is 
the  "  breaking  down  "  of  the  race  horse.     The  tendons 
most  commonly  involved  are  the  flexor  tendons  of  the 
foreleg.      If   contracted,   they   cause   cocked  ankles  and 


FEATURES   OF  ANIMAL   FORM  43 

sprung  knees,  while  if  some  of  their  fibers  have  become 
ruptured  and  repaired  by  low  grade  connective  or  scar 
tissue  they  are  said  to  be  "  bowed,"  a  common  condition 
in  race  horses.  Lameness  due  to  sprained  ligaments  and 
tendons  is  usually  aggravated  by  moving  the  horse  instead 
of  being  relieved,  to  some  extent,  as  it  is  if  due  to  inflam- 
mation of  the  joints. 

64.  Age.  —  Its  determination  in  those  classes  of  live 
stock  the  majority  of  whose  lives  are  terminated  after  a 
short  period  of  a  few  years,  as  beef  cattle,  hogs  and  sheep, 
is  a  comparatively  simple  matter,  but  in  the  case  of  the 
horse,  which  not  only  lives  to  a  much  greater  age,  but  is 
valued  largely  on  the  age  basis,  and  consequently  invites 
frequent  attempts  at  deception,  the  indications  are  more 
complex  and  difficult  of  determination.  In  the  former 
group  the  order  of  eruption  of  the  teeth  is  the  primary 
consideration,  wear  being  noted  only  in  those  breeding 
animals  of  advanced  age,  while  eruption  in  the  horse  can 
only  be  relied  upon  until  he  is  fairly  ma- 
ture, after  which  wear  is  responsible  for 
the  changes  which  mark  the  ages. 

Distinction  between  the  milk  or  decidu- 
ous teeth,  which  are  shed,  and  the  perma- 
nent teeth,  upon  the  eruption  of  which 
so  much  depends,  involves  their  size, 
shape,  and  color  (Fig.  17).  In  all  animals 
the  permanent  teeth  are  larger,  less  coni- 
cal in  shape,  have  a  much  deeper  root, 
a  wider  base  and  a  thicker  coat  of  enamel, 
the  surface  of  which  is  usually  ridged  per-  tooth, 
pendicularly,  and  yellow  instead  of  white. 

The  signs  of  age  in  the  mouth  of  all  animals  are  subject 
to  considerable  variation  and  correction.     Eruption  may 


44  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

be  influenced  by  early  maturity,  while  the  wear  will  depend 
upon  the  nature  of  the  feed.  A  milk-fed  calf  will  not  wear 
out  his  mouth  as  rapidly 
as  one  that  is  grazing. 

66.  The  determination  of 
the  age  of  the  horse.  —  As 
a  rule,  at  birth  none  of  the 
incisor  teeth  are  through 
the  gums  (Fig.  18). 

One  year.  —  All  the  milk 
incisors  are  visible,  the 
pinchers  and  intermediates 
being  well  through  the 

FIG.  18.  —  Lower  jaw  of  foal  from  , . 

one  to  two  weeks  old.  gums  and  in  contact,  but  the 

corners  are  not  yet  level. 

Two  years.  —  The  pinchers  and  the  intermediates  are 
pushed  free  from  their  gums  at  their  base,  indicating  that 
the  permanent  teeth  are  crowding  them  (Fig.  19) . 


FIG.  19.  —  Lower  jaw  of  the  two-year-old  colt. 


FEATURES   OF  ANIMAL  FORM  45 

Three  years.  —  By  two  and  one  half  years  the  middle 
pinchers  are  through,  and  at  three  they  are  leveled  and  in 


FIG.  20.  —  Lower  jaw  of  the  three-year-old  colt. 

wear,  while  the  milk  intermediates  are  about  to  be  shed 
(Fig.  20). 

Four  years.  —  At  three  and  one  half  the  permanent  in- 
termediates come  through  and  at  four  they  are  leveled 
and  wearing.  At  this  age  the  corner  milk  teeth  mani- 
fest the  approach  of  the  permanent  corners  (Figs.  21 
and  22). 

Five  years.  —  At  four  and  a  half  the  corners  are  shed, 
the  permanent  corners  appear  and  at  five  there  is  the  so- 
called  full  mouth,  all  permanent  incisors  being  level  and  in 
wear  (Figs.  23  and  24). 

Six  -years.  —  The  cups  of  the  lower  pinchers  wear  away 
and  the  canines  in  males  may  appear  (Figs.  25  and  26). 

Seven  years.  —  The   cups  of  the   lower  intermediates 


46 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


FIG.  21.  —  Lower  jaw  of  the  four-year  old. 


FIG.  22.  —  Side  view  of  the  mouth  of  a  four-year  old. 


FEATURES   OF  ANIMAL   FORM  47 


FIG.  23.  —  Lower  jaw  of  a  five-year  old. 


FIG.  24.  —  Side  view  of  the  mouth  of  a  five-year  old. 


48 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


FIG.  25.  —  Lower  jaw  of  a  six-year  old. 


FIG.  26.  —  Side  view  of  the  mouth  of  a  six-year  old. 


FEATURES   OF  ANIMAL   FORM  4H 


FIG.  27.  —  Lower  jaw  of  a  seven-year  old. 


FIG.  28.  —  Side  view  of  the  mouth  of  a  seven-year  old. 


50  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


FIG.  29.  —  Lower  jaw  of  an  eight-year  old. 


FIG.  30.  —  Side  view  of  the  mouth  of  an  eight-year  old. 


FEATURES  OF  ANIMAL   FORM 


51 


FIG.  31.  — Side  view  of  the  mouth  of  an  aged  horse. 


FIG.  32.  —  Lower  jaw  of  an  aged  horse. 


52  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

wear  out,  the  notch  on  the  upper  corner  appears  and  the 
incisive  arch  or  the  angle  made  by  the  teeth  as  they  meet 
becomes  more  acute  (Figs.  27  and  28). 

•Eight  years.  —  The  cups  wear  out  of  the  corners,  the 
pinchers  and  intermediate  teeth  become  oval  in  shape,  and 
show  the  dental  star,  upon  their  table  (Figs.  29  and  30) . 


FIG.  33.  —  Shows  the  wear  of  an  incisor  tooth  at  the  ages  of  three,  four 
five,  six,  nine  and  twenty  years,  and  why  the  cups,  or  marks,  dis- 
appear as  age  advances.  The  lower  nippers  wear  away  about  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  each  year.  The  upper  incisors  wear  away  more 
slowly. 

Nine  years.  —  The  notch  on  the  upper  corners  may  have 
disappeared,  the  pinchers  are  round,  and  the  corner  teeth 
oval.  The  upper  pinchers  show  wear,  and  the  angle  of 
the  incisive  arch  is  more  acute. 

Ten  years.  —  The  cups  of  the  upper  pinchers  are 
worn  out  and  the  angle  at  which  the  teeth  meet  has  be- 
come so  acute  as  to  necessitate  raising  the  horse's  head 
in  order  to  look  by  the  upper  teeth  to  view  the  lower 
pinchers. 


FEA  TUBES  OF  ANIMAL  FORM 


53 


Eleven  years.  —  The  tables  of  the  intermediate  uppers 
are  worn  away  and  the  corners  show  wear.  The  lower 
corners  have  become  round  and  the  obliquity  of  the  jaws 
is  still  greater. 

Twelve  years.  —  The  tables  of  all  the  upper  teeth  are 
worn,  those  of  the  lowers  are  dis- 
tinctly round  and  the  angle  of  the 
jaw  is  increased. 

Beyond  this  age  the  indications 
of  the  mouth  are  based  upon  the 
increasing  obliquity  of  the  jaws 
(Fig.  31),  giving  a  more  acute  angle 
of  incidence  of  the  teeth,  the  in- 
creasing changes  in  the  size  and 
shape  of  all  the  teeth  (Fig.  32),  due 
to  their  being  worn  closer  to  the 
roots  and  the  narrowing  and  flat- 
tening of  the  lower  and  upper  jaws, 
respectively,  the  result  of  the  tissues 
closing  in  and  crowding  the  roots  of 
the  teeth  down  so  as  to  keep  the  worn 
tables  in  contact  (Figs.  33  and  34). 

66.  Bishoping  is  quite  commonly  practiced  on  the 
mouths  of  second-hand  horses  that  are  offered  for  sale. 
It  consists  in  burning  into  the  table  of  the  tooth  a  cup  to  re- 
place the  one  which  has  been  worn  out  with  age.  Mouths 
are  usually  bishoped  to  resemble  the  appearance  of  the 
cups  at  6  or  7  years  of  age.  The  made-over  mouth  can 
be  detected  by  the  fact  that  the  appearance  of  the  cups 
is  not  in  accord  with  the  angle  or  shape  of  the  teeth.  Un- 
less skillfully  done  the  burned  cup  itself  can  be  recognized, 
and  there  will  not  be  the  ring  of  enamel  which  surrounds 
the  cup  of  the  normal  tooth. 


FIG.  34.  —  Cross  section 
of  an  incisor  tooth, 
showing  how  the  shape 
changes  with  advanc- 
ing years. 


54  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

67.  Determination  of  the  age  of  cattle.  —  The  general 
size,  shape  and  growth  of  the  cattle  as  well  as  the  ap- 
pearance of  their  horns  is  usually  evidence  enough  to  de- 
termine their  age.  It  is  only  in  case  of  disputes,  as  over 
the  classification  of  show  cattle,  that  the  teeth  are  called 
into  requisition. 

The  bovine  teeth  present  some  special  features.  In- 
cisors are  not  firmly  set  in  the  jaw  cavity  as  in  the  horse, 
but  are  imbedded  in  cartilage  in  such  a  way  as  to  permit 
of  considerable  movement.  This  is  necessary  on  account 
of  the  fact  that  the  teeth  are  not  opposed  by  others  in 
the  upper  jaw,  but  rather  by  a  peculiar  development  of 
the  gum  to  form  a  cushion  against  which  the  feed  is 
crushed  by  the  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw.  Furthermore, 
the  tissues  of  the  jaw  do  not  close  down  upon  the 
roots  of  the  teeth  crowding  them  forward  as  their  tables 
wear  away,  although  this  wear  begins  before  the  tooth  is 
fully  developed. 

At  birth.  —  The  calf  usually  has  four  incisors  at 
birth,  although  he  may  have  none,  and  the  third  pair 
appears  about  the  tenth  day,  the  last  or  corner  pair 
anywhere  from  the  seventh  to  the  thirtieth  day. 
These  teeth  are  not  leveled,  however,  until  the  fifth 
or  sixth  month.  The  pinchers  are  worn  level  at  ten 
months. 

One  year.  —  The  first  intermediate  pair  of  milk  teeth 
are  leveled  at  one  year,  the  second  pair  at  fifteen  months 
and  the  corners  at  eighteen  to  twenty  months,  at  which 
time  the  permanent  pinchers  appear. 

Two  years.  —  The  first  pair  of  permanent  intermediates 
is  in  at  some  time  between  two  and  one  quarter  years 
and  two  years  and  nine  months. 

Three  years.  —  The  second  intermediate  pair  has  taken 


FEATURES   OF  ANIMAL   FORM  55 

its  place  at  from  three  and  a  quarter  to  three  and  one  half 
years. 

Four  years.  —  The  corner  teeth  are  in  and  the  mouth  is 
complete  at  from  three  years  and  nine  months  to  four  years 
and  six  months. 

Five  years.  —  The  pinchers  have  commenced  to  wear 
level. 

Six  years.  —  The  pinchers  are  leveled  completely, 
both  pairs  of  intermediates  partly  and  the  corners  some- 
what. 

Seven  years.  —  The  first  intermediate  pair  is  completely 
leveled  and  the  second  pair  is  much  worn. 

Eight  years.  —  The  tables  of  all  the  teeth  are  leveled 
and  the  pinchers  begin  to  show  a  hollow  which  corresponds 
to  the  prominence  of  the  cushion  of  the  upper  jaw.  This 
concavity  appears  in  the  first  intermediates  at  nine  and 
in  the  second  at  ten. 

There  have  taken  place,  meantime,  alterations  in  the 
appearance  of  the  mouth  similar  to  those  described  in 
the  horse. 

68.  Telling  the   age    by    the    horns.  —  The  growth   of 
the  horn  is   a  fairly  reliable   indication  of  the   age   in 
cattle.      The  first  distinct  ring  appears  at  three  years, 
and   each    succeeding   year    adds  its  ring  so  that  two 
should  be  added  to  the  count  of  the  rings  to  determine 
the  age. 

69.  Determination  of  the  age  of  sheep.  —  The  erup- 
tion of  the  permanent  pinchers  takes  place  in  the  sheep 
at  from  twelve  to  fifteen  months  of  age  and  the  suc- 
ceeding two  pairs  of  intermediates  and  corners  follow 
approximately  one   year    apart.     At   least   this   is   the 
basis  upon  which  the  age  of  sheep  is  usually  reckoned, 
although   the  exact  time  of  the  eruption  of  the  teeth 


56  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

involves  fractions  of  years  and  months.  Age  is  often 
expressed  by  two-tooth  or  four-tooth,  as  one  pair  of 
permanent  incisors  has  appeared  in  one  year,  two  pairs 
in  two  years. 

70.  Determination  of  the  age  of  hogs.  —  Little  thought 
is  given  to  the  determination  of  the  hog's  age  by  his  teeth. 
It  is  difficult,  in  the  first  place,  to  observe   his   mouth, 
and  in  the  second  place  the   indications  are  subject   to 
much  irregularity. 

71.  Early  maturity  insures  attaining  full,  normal  growth 
and  development  at  the  earliest  age.     Animals  maybe  con- 
sidered to  have  a  definite  period  to  develop  in,  rather  than 
a  definite  degree  of  development  to  attain  in  unlimited  time. 
If  one  does  not  make  steady  growth  during  this  growing 
period,  it  will  be  deficient  in  development  when  growth 
ceases.     Early  maturity  is  indicated  in  any  class  of  stock 
by  weight  for  age   and  general  evidence  of  growthiness 
and  proximity  to  final  development. 

72.  Color  has  both  a  market  and  a  breed  significance. 
Certain   colors   enhance  while  others   detract   from  the 
value    or    usefulness    of    certain    animals.     Gray    horses 
withstand  heat  better  than  black,  white  hogs  are  especially 
susceptible  to  skin  irritations,  to  which  black  hogs  are 
usually  immune.     The  color  and  color  markings  are  the 
most  striking  features  of  breed    type  in  some  instances, 
as  in  the  Hereford  cattle. 

Color  is  a  most  convenient  aid  to  an  accurate  description 
of  an  animal,  a  most  important  means  of  establishing 
identity,  as  in  the  case  of  pedigree  registration.  For  this 
purpose  the  various  shades  of  the  individual  colors,  and 
the  exact  location,  extent  and  outline  of  the  white  mark- 
ings should  be  accurately  noted. 


FEATURES   OF  ANIMAL   FORM 


57 


73.    The  classification  of  the  color  of  horses. 


Hard 


Classification 
of  the  color  of 
horses 


Solid 


Broken 


Soft 


Odd 


Piebald 
Skewbald 


Marked 
(markings) 


Bay  —  bright,  blood, 
mahogany. 

Brown  —  bay,  seal, 
mealy,  black. 

Chestnut  -  -  golden , 
red,  burnt,  black. 

Black  —  jet,  sooty. 

Gray  —  dappled,  steel, 
iron,  black,  flea- 
bitten. 

Roan  -  -  blue,  red, 
strawberry. 

White  (pink  skin). 
Mealy  bay. 
Washy  chestnut. 

Cream. 

Mouse. 

Dun  —  light  or  Isa- 
bella, dark  or  buck- 
skin (black  points). 

Black  and  white. 

Bay,  brown  or  chest- 
nut and  white. 

White   —   bald    face, 

.  blaze,  strip,  star, 
snip,  splash,  stock- 
ing, sock,  fetlock, 
pastern,  coronet, 
heel. 

Black  —  points,  back 
and  leg  stripes. 

Odd  —  tiger  lily  spots, 
leprous  spots,  watch 
eye. 


58  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

THE  LAW  OF  CORRELATION 

The  law  of  correlation  is  one  of  the  principles  upon 
which  the  practice  of  judging  is  based  —  the  correlation 
of  form  or  structure  and  function,  and  the  correlation  of 
parts,  one  to  the  other. 

74.  The  correlation  of  form  and  function.  —  Actual 
determination  of  functional  capacity,  as  in  the  horse  race 
or  pulling  contest,  the  dairy  or  slaughter  test,  affords  the 
most  accurate  and,  in  some  instances,  the  only  means  of 
judging  the  relative  merits  of  individuals.  No  one  would 
consider  settling  a  matter  of  speed  supremacy  in  the  show 
ring,  for  instance,  but  would  send  the  contestants  away 
in  a  race.  It  even  happens  that  the  awarding  of  the  rib- 
bons in  dairy  and  beef  cattle  rings  may  be  somewhat 
reversed  when  the  same  classes  are  subjected  to  the  real 
test  in  the  dairy  or  the  abattoir.  However,  it  is  not  al- 
ways practicable  to  await  the  results  of  a  try-out  of  relative 
merits  in  performance  or  production;  the  judge  must 
estimate  functional  possibilities  from  an  analysis  of  struc- 
ture and,  if  correct  standards  of  measuring  structure  are 
employed,  reasonably  accurate  results  may  be  expected. 
The  more  complicated  the  function,  of  course,  the  greater 
the  factor  of  possible  error. 

Function  is  the  end,  structure  the  means.  Function 
has  its  limitations.  In  the  case  of  the  finished  block  ani- 
mal, it  consists  simply  of  being  a  carcass  of  beef,  mutton  or 
pork,  while  in  the  case  of  the  feeder,  function  implies 
doing  something,  and  with  the  horse  and  the  dairy  cow 
doing  may  become  a  still  more  complicated  performance. 
It  is  manifestly  a  simpler  proposition  to  determine  how 
a  hog  will  cut  up  or  a  steer  hang  up  by  seeing  them  on  foot 
than  to  estimate,  from  an  inspection,  how  many  pounds  of 


FEATURES   OF  ANIMAL   FORM  59 

milk  or  fat  a  dairy  cow  will  produce  in  a  year  or  how  fast 
a  horse  can  trot  or  run.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  actual 
test  is  the  only  practical  means  of  making  the  latter  deter- 
mination, although  even  here  an  approximate  idea  of  func- 
tional capacity  can  be  had  from  the  study  of  form. 

The  novice  is  impressed  with  the  rapidity  with  which  the 
experienced  judge  will  make  his  analysis  of  animal  form. 
The  detailed  scoring  of  an  animal,  even  by  an  expert, 
will  require  much  more  time  than  may  be  consumed 
in  forming  a  very  accurate  notion  of  the  sum  total  of 
the  individual's  good  and  bad  points.  "  Practice  makes 
perfect,"  and  the  practiced  eye  can  discern  more  quickly, 
but,  in  addition,  consideration  of  the  law  of  correlation 
enables  the  expert  judge  to  cut  corners,  as  it  were. 

75.  The  correlation  of  parts.  —  One  part  is  an  index  to 
other  parts  with  which  it  is  correlated.  Thus  the  buyer 
of  feeder  cattle  seeks  out  broad,  flat  backs  as  he  looks 
down  on  them  from  his  pony,  or  short,  broad  heads  if  they 
are  faced  about  to  him  in  the  pens.  A  head  of  these  dimen- 
sions will  be  found  only  on  a  low  set,  broad,  deep  and 
usually  a  thick-fleshed  steer,  while  a  long,  narrow  head 
indicates  the  reverse. 

As  a  rule,  longitudinal  dimensions  of  all  parts  are  alike 
long  or  short  and  are  inversely  related  to  transverse  and 
perpendicular  dimensions.  Hence  a  long-legged  animal  is 
long  all  over,  head,  neck  and  back,  while  inversely  narrow 
and  short  ribbed.  It  is  as  essential  to  know  what  are 
not  correlated  as  what  are ;  quality  and  substance,  milk 
and  beef,  power  and  speed  are  opposed  to  each  other  by 
this  same  law. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  MEANS  OF  MAKING  OBSERVATIONS 

76.  The  eye  and  the  hand.  —  The  eye  and  the  hand 
are  the  means  relied  upon  for  making  determinations  of 
animal  form  and  features;  the  latter  usually  being  em- 
ployed to  supplement  the  eye  or  verify  what  has  been  seen. 
The  relative  importance  of  the  eye  and  the  hand  for  this 
purpose  will  depend  upon  the  sort  of  stock  judged.  The 
eye  is  almost  exclusively  depended  upon  in  the  judging 
of  hogs,  even  the  firmness  of  the  flesh  being  ascertained 
by  the  lay  of  the  hair.  Next  in  order  come  horses,  it  be- 
ing necessary  only  to  run  the  hand  over  the  tendons  and 
joints  to  note  their  texture  and  detect  possible  unsound- 
ness  and  to  feel  condition  on  the  rib.  Cattle  are  regu- 
larly handled  :  those  of  the  dairy  type  to  get  the  thickness, 
pliability,  secretions  and  looseness  of  the  hide,  the  amount 
and  texture  of  the  hair,  the  texture  of  the  udder  and  the 
openness  of  the  chine ;  while  beef  cattle  are  handled  to 
determine,  in  addition  to  the  features  of  the  hide  and  hair 
already  enumerated,  the  thickness,  consistence  and  even- 
ness of  the  covering  of  flesh.  Sheep  have  their  form  so 
obscured  by  the  fleece  and  the  fleece  is  often  so  cleverly 
trimmed  as  to  require  most  careful  handling  in  order  to 
become  informed  of  the  details  of  mutton  form  and  con- 
formation. Handling  is  also  necessary  in  the  examination 
of  the  fleece.  In  fact,  in  the  case  of  the  sheep  the  hand  is 
60 


THE  MEANS   OF  MAKING   OBSERVATIONS         61 

almost  as  exclusively  depended  upon  as  is  the  eye  in  the 
case  of  the  hog. 

77.  Method  of  handling.  —  In  handling  it  should  be  re- 
membered that  the  tips  of  the  fingers  are  most  sensitive  to 
the  touch.     The  hides  of  cattle  are  rolled  in  the  flat  of  the 
hand  or  between  the  fingers  and  thumb.     The  hide  is  most 
easily  picked  up  over  the  back  rib,  the  animal's  head,  mean- 
time being  directed  forward,  as  turning  to  either  side  loosens 
the  skin  very  noticeably  on  that  side  and  causes  a  corre- 
sponding tightness  on  the  other.     Depth  of  covering  in 
cattle  and  sheep  is  shown  along  the  spinal  column  of  the 
back  and  loin  and  over  the  top  and  side  of  the  shoulder, 
regions  in  which  the  bone  is  likely  to  be  most  conspicuous. 
Sheep  are  handled  with  the  flat  hand,  the  fingers  kept 
tight  together,  care  being  taken  not  to  muss  the  fleece 
by  turning  down  the  staple.     The  fleece  is  parted  for 
examination  at  three  places,  over  the  heart  where  it  is 
finest,  on  the  lower  outside  of  the  thigh  where  it  is  coarsest, 
and  at  mid-rib  where  an  average  of  its  quality  will  be  found. 
A  natural  seam  is  selected  and  opened  by  the  backs  of 
the  two  hands,  which  are  afterward  reversed  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  press  the  fleece  back  with  the  palms,  exposing 
the  staple  for  its  full  depth,  and  the  skin. 

78.  Method  of  observing.  —  The  study  of  the  horse's 
way  of  going  is  made  by  having  him  moved  away  from, 
toward,  and  by,  the  observer.     By  lining  up  the  eye  with 
the  direction  in  which  the  horse  is  moving  the  directness 
of  the  stride  is  apparent  whether  going  or  coming,  as  are 
also  the   height  of   the   stride,  hind   and  front,  and  the 
working  of  stifles  and  shoulders.     Viewed  from  the  side, 
as  he  passes  by,  the  length,  height,  spring,  balance  and 
regularity  of  the  stride  can  be  noted. 


62  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

SYSTEM  OF  MAKING  OBSERVATIONS 

Some  definite  system  of  making  observations  should  be 
followed  in  order  that  each  look  may  be  made  to  count, 
and  only  one  look  be.  necessary ;  if  the  views  are  taken  in 
logical  order  from  head  to  tail,  for  instance,  there  is  not 
only  less  likelihood  of  certain  points  being  overlooked, 
but  the  impression  formed  of  the  animal  in  toto  will  be 
more  complete  and  accurate. 

79.  Inspection.  —  Observations  must  be  both  general 
and  particular.  The  first  step  in  the  inspection  of  an  animal 
should  be  to  take  a  general  survey  of  the  tout  ensemble 
from  such  a  distance  as  to  bring  the  subject  entirely 
within  one's  field  of  vision,  and  thus  permitting  a  considera- 
tion of  its  size,  general  appearance,  lines,  proportions  and 
the  symmetry  of  its  parts. 

The  particular  observation  should  follow  and  include 
a  minute  examination,  in  order,  of  every  detail,  from  close 
range.  The  order  of  this  examination  may  be  :  face  the 
animal  from  in  front,  noting  the  bigger  things  first,  i.e. 
width,  height,  size  and  carriage  of  head,  then  in  detail, 
the  proportions  of  the  head,  the  expression  of  the  counte- 
nance and  the  features  contributing  thereto,  eyes,  ears, 
forehead,  face,  nostrils  and  lips;  then  the  direction  of 
the  forelegs,  whether  normal  or  showing  deviations  and 
what  deviations,  if  any,  with  the  conformation  of  the  fore- 
legs and  the  feet.  Pass  to  the  side  position  and  consider 
in  profile  such  general  features  as  top  and  under  lines,  the 
carriage  of  the  head,  and  setting  of  the  body  on  the  legs ; 
then  in  detail,  the  head  in  profile,  the  setting  of  the  head 
on  the  neck,  the  length,  shape  and  carriage  of  the  neck, 
the  blending  of  the  neck  with  the  shoulders,  the  direction 
and  conformation  of  the  forelegs  viewed  from  the  side, 


THE  MEANS   OF  MAKING   OBSERVATIONS         63 

the  back,  rib,  heart  girth,  loin,  flank,  croup  or  rump, 
tail,  thighs  and  finally  the  direction  and  conformation  of 
the  hind  legs  and  feet.  From  the  rear  view  first,  in  general, 
the  width  and  contour,  then,  in  detail,  the  hips,  stifles, 
thighs,  lower  thighs,  and  the  direction  and  conformation 
of  the  hind  legs  and  feet.  Finally,  inspect  the  other  side, 
in  order  to  determine  whether  or  not  the  animal  is  sym- 
metrical. 


CHAPTER  VI 
PRACTICE  JUDGING 

A  THOROUGH  study  of  animal  form  with  full  appreci- 
ation of  its  bearing  on  function  as  concerned  in  economic 
production  is  fundamental  to  actual  judging. 

Judging  implies  comparison  and  competition,  since 
selection  is  impossible  when  only  one  individual  is  pre- 
sented. It  requires,  first,  an  analysis  of  each  individual 
under  consideration.  Then  a  comparison  of  each,  in 
sum  total,  and  finally  competitive  consideration,  the 
good  points  of  one  being  arraigned  against  the  good  points 
of  another,  the  defects  against  defects,  until  a  final  and 
definite  conclusion  may  be  drawn  as  to  their  relative  merits. 

80.  Analysis  of  the  individual.  —  A  study  of   the  indi- 
vidual should  precede   any  "attempt   at   comparative  or 
competitive  judging.      The   names,   ideal   features,    and 
possible  defects,  with  their  significance,  must  be  known 
and  detected  both  in  so  far  as  the  individual  parts  are 
concerned,  and  in  their  relation  with  other  parts.     Score 
card  practice  and  demonstrations  are  most  useful  in  acquir- 
ing this  information. 

81.  The  score  card,  in  this  relation,  is  not  to  be  consid- 
ered  as  a  standard  of   measurement  or  a  numerical   ex- 
pression of  merit  as  in  the  scoring  of  cows  for  advanced 
registration,  but  as  a  word  picture  or  descriptive  specifica- 
tion of  the  ideal  animal.     For  this  purpose  the  detailed, 
rather  than  the  condensed,  score  card  is  most  useful, 

64 


PRACTICE  JUDGING  65 

By  means  of  the  arrangement  into  major  headings,  each 
of  which  is  divided  into  sub-headings,  the  student  may 
become  familiar  with  the  individual  parts  and  the  regions 
into  which  they  are  grouped,  with  the  names  of  each. 
The  correct  features  of  each  part  are  specified  in  a  brief 
description  and  the  relative  importance  of  each  part  in 
the  animal  organism  is  indicated  by  the  numerical  value 
attached  thereto.  Those  which  are  most  liable  to  be  de- 
fective and  most  detrimental  to  the  usefulness  of  the 
animal  if  defects  in  them  exist  are  allotted  the  greatest 
number  of  counts.  By  continued  practice  with  the  score 
card,  the  student  not  only  acquires  a  mental  impression 
of  the  ideal,  which  eventually  enables  him  to  cast  the 
score  card  aside,  but  he  is  also  trained  in  making  system- 
atic and  accurate  observations. 

SCORE    CARD 
THE   DRAFT   HORSE 

Scale  of  Points 
General  Appearance.  —  16.  Counts 

1.  Weight 

2.  Height 

3.  Form  —  low  station,  wide,  deep,  compact,  massive          4 

4.  Substance  —  bone    ample,    joints    broad,    propor- 

tioned to  scale         4 

5.  Quality  —  bone  dense  and  clean,  tendons  and  joints 

sharply  denned,  leg  broad  and  flat,  hide  and  hair 

fine,  refinement  of  head,  finish 4 

6.  Temperament  —  energetic,  disposition  good,  intel- 

ligent               4 

Head  and  Neck.  —  7. 

7.  Head  —  size  and  dimensions,  in  proportion,  clear- 

cut  features,   straight  face  line,   wide  angle  in 
lower  jaw 1 

8.  Forehead  —  broad,  full        1 


66  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

Head  and  Neck.  —  Continued.  Counts 

9.    Eyes  —  prominent  orbit,  large,  full,  bright,  clear,  lid 

thin,  even  curvature         1 

10.  Ears  —  medium  size,  fine,  pointed,  set  close,  carried 

alert 1 

11.  Muzzle  —  broad,  nostrils  large  but  not  dilated,  lips 

thin,  even,  trim 1 

12.  Neck  —  long,  muscular  but  not  thick,  well  crested, 

throttle  well  cut  out,  head  well  set  on         ...          2 

Forehand.  —  24. 

13.  Shoulders  —  long,  sloping,  smooth,  muscular      .     .  2 

14.  Arms  —  short,  muscular,  elbow  in 2 

15.  Forearms  —  wide,  muscular 2 

16.  Knees  —  straight,  wide,  deep,  strongly  supported  .  2 

17.  Cannons  —  short,  broad,  flat,  tendons  sharply  de- 

fined, set  well  back 2 

18.  Fetlocks  —  wide,  tendons  well  back,  straight,  well 

.supported 2 

19.  Pasterns  —  long,    oblique    (45    degrees),    smooth, 

strong     . 2 

20.  Feet  —  large,  round,  uniform,  straight,  slope  of  wall 

parallel  to  slope  of  pastern,  sole  concave,  bars 
strong,  frogs  large  and  elastic  ;  heels  wide,  full,  one 
third  height  of  toe  ;  horn  dense,  smooth,  dark  color  6 

21.  Legs  —  direction  viewed  from  in  front,  perpendicu- 

lar line  dropped  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder 
should  divide  the  leg  and  foot  into  two  lateral 
halves.  Viewed  from  the  side  a  perpendicular 
line  dropped  from  the  tuberosity  of  the  scapula 
should  pass  through  the  center  of  the  elbow  joint 
and  meet  the  ground  at  the  center  of  the  foot  .  4 

Body.  —  11. 

22.  Withers  —  well  defined  but  muscular 2 

23.  Chest  —  wide,  deep 2 

24.  Ribs  —  well  sprung,  long,  close 2 

25.  Back  —  short,  straight,  strong,  broad 2 

26.  Loin  —  short,  broad,  strongly  coupled 2 

27.  Flank  —  deep,  full,  long,  low  under  line     ....  1 


PRACTICE  JUDGING  67 

Hindquarters.  —  32.  Counts 

28.  Hips  —  wide,  level,  muscular 2 

29.  Croup  —  long,  level,  muscular 2 

30.  Tail  —  attached  high,  well  carried 1 

31.  Thighs  —  deep,  muscular 2 

32.  Stifles  —  broad,  thick,  muscular 2 

33.  Gaskins  —  wide,  muscular *  2 

34.  Hocks  —  straight,    wide,    point    prominent,    deep, 

clean  cut,  smooth,  well  supported 6 

35.  Cannons  —  short,  broad,  flat,  tendons  sharply  de- 

nned, set  well  back 2 

36.  Fetlocks  —  wide,  tendons   well    set  back,  straight, 

well  supported 2 

37.  Pasterns  —  long,    oblique     (50    degrees),     smooth, 

strong 3 

38.  Feet  —  large,  round  (slightly  less  than  in  front),  uni- 

form, straight,  slope  of  wall  parallel  to  slope  of 
pastern,  sole  concave,  bars  strong,  frog  large,  elas- 
tic ;  heels  wide,  full,  one  third  height  of  toe,  horn 
dense,  smooth,  dark  color 4 

39.  Legs  —  direction  viewed  from  the  rear,  a  perpen- 

dicular line  dropped  from  the  point  of  the  buttock 
should  divide  the  leg  and  foot  into  lateral  halves ; 
viewed  from  the  side,  this  same  line  should  touch 
the  point  of  the  hock  and  meet  the  ground  some 
little  distance  back  of  the  heel.  A  perpendicular 
line  dropped  from  the  hip  joint  should  meet  the 
ground  near  the  center  of  the  foot 4 

Way  of  Going.  —  10. 

40.  Walk  —  straight,  strong,  active 6 

41.  Trot  —  powerful,  free,  moderate  action      ....         4 

Total  100 


68  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

SCORE    CARD 

THE   HEAVY   HARNESS   HORSE 

Scale  of  Points 

General  Appearance.  —  12.  Counts 

1.  Height        

2.  Weight 

3.  Form  —  close,  full  made,  smooth  turned,  symmetri- 

cal              4 

4.  Quality  —  bone  clean,  dense,  fine,  yet  indicating  sub- 

stance, tendons  and  joints  sharply  defined,  hide 

and  hair  fine,  general  refinement,  finish       ...         4 

5.  Temperament  —  proud,    bold,    stylish,    disposition 

good,  intelligent       4 

Head  and  Neck.  —  7. 

6.  Head  —  size  and  dimensions  in  proportion,  clear-cut 

features,  straight  face  line,  wide  angle  in  lower  jaw         1 

7.  Forehead  —  broad,  full 1 

8.  Eyes  —  prominent  orbit,  large,  full,  bright,   clear, 

lid  thin,  even  curvature 1 

9.  Ears  —  medium  size,  fine,  pointed,  set  close,  carried 

alert 1 

10.  Muzzle  —  fine,  nostrils  large,  lips  thin,  trim,  even  .         1 

11.  Neck  —  long,  lofty  carriage,  high  crest,  throttle  well 

cut  out,  head  well  set  on       ........         2 

Forehand.  —  22. 

12.  Shoulders  —  long,  oblique,  smooth 2 

13.  Arms  —  short,  muscular,  carried  well  forward      .     .  1 

14.  Forearms  —  broad,  muscular 1 

15.  Knees  —  straight,  wide,  deep,  strongly  supported    .  2 

16.  Cannons  —  short,  broad,  flat,  tendons  sharply  de- 

fined, set  well  back 2 

17.  Fetlocks  —  wide,  tendons  well  back,  straight,  well 

supported • .     .     .     .         2 

18.  Pasterns  —  long,    oblique    (45     degrees),     smooth, 

strong 2 


PRACTICE  JUDGING  69 

Forehand.  — Continued.  Counts 

19.  Feet  —  large,  round,  uniform,  straight,  slope  of  wall 

parallel  to  slope  of  pastern,  sole  concave,  bars 
strong,  frog  large,  elastic,  heels  wide,  full,  one 
third  height  of  toe,  horn  dense,  smooth,  dark  color  6 

20.  Legs  —  direction  viewed  from  in  front,  perpendicu- 

lar line  dropped  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder 
should  divide  the  leg  and  foot  into  two  lateral 
halves  ;  viewed  from  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line 
dropped  from  the  tuberosity  of  the  scapula  should 
pass  through  the  center  of  the  elbow  joint  and 
meet  the  ground  at  the  center  of  the  foot  ...  4 

Body.  —  11. 

21.  Withers  —  well  set  up,  narrow,  extending  well  back  2 

22.  Chest  —  wide,  deep '  .     .  2 

23.  Ribs  —  well  sprung,  long,  close 2 

24.  Back  —  short,  straight,  strong,  broad 2 

25.  Loin  —  short,  broad,  strongly  coupled 2 

26.  Flank  —  deep,  full,  long  low  under  line      ....  1 

Hindquarters.  —  32. 

27.  Hips  —  broad,  round,  smooth .  2 

28.  Croup  —  long,  level,  round,  smooth 2 

29.  Tail  —  set  high,  well  carried .  2 

30.  Thighs  —  full,  muscular  ...........  2 

31.  Stifles  —  broad,  full,  muscular      .......        2 

32.  Gastins  —  broad,  muscular 2 

33.  Hocks  —  straight,    wide,    point    prominent,    deep, 

clean  cut,  smooth,  well  supported 6 

34.  Cannons  —  short,  broad,  flat,  tendons  sharply  de- 

fined, set  well  back 2 

35.  Fetlocks  —  wide,  tendons  well  back,  straight,  well        2 

supported 2 

36.  Pasterns  —  long,    oblique    (50     degrees),     smooth, 

strong 2 

37.  Feet  —  large,  round  (slightly  less   than   in   front), 

uniform,  straight,  slope  of  wall  parallel  to  slope  of 
pastern,  sole  concave,  bars  strong,  frog  large  and 
elastic,  heels  wide,  full  one  third  height  of  toe, 
horn  dense,  smooth,  dark  color 4 


70  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

Hindquarters.  —  Continued.  Counts 

38.  Legs  —  direction  viewed  from  the  rear,  a  perpendic- 

ular line  dropped  from  the  point  of  the  buttock 
should  divide  the  leg  and  foot  into  lateral  halves ; 
viewed  from  the  side  this  same  line  should  touch 
the  point  of  the  hock  and  meet  the  ground  some 
little  distance  back  of  the  heel.  A  perpendicular 
line  dropped  from  the  hip  joint  should  meet  the 
ground  near  the  center  of  the  foot 4 

Way  of  Going.  —  16. 

39.  Walk  —  straight,  snappy,  springy,  proud,  stylish     .         6 

40.  Trot  —  in  line,  bold,  flashy,  extreme  flexion  of  knees 

and  hocks,  balanced,  regular 10 

Total       100 

SCORE   CARD 

THE   LIGHT   HARNESS   HORSE 

Scale  of  Points 

Counts 

General  Appearance.  —  12. 

1.  Height 

2.  Weight 

3.  Form  —  rangy,  deep,  lithe,  angular 4 

4.  Quality  —  bone  clean,  dense,  fine,  yet    indicating 

substance,  tendons  and  joints  sharply  defined, 
hide  and  hair  fine,  general  refinement  ....  4 

5.  Temperament  —  nervous,  active,  disposition  good, 

intelligent 4 

Head  and  Neck.  —  7. 

6.  Head  —  size  and  dimensions  in  proportion,   clear- 

cut  features,  straight  face  line,  wide  angle  in  lower 
jaw .  1 

7.  Forehead  —  broad,  full 1 

8.  Eyes  —  prominent  orbit,  large,  full,  bright,  clear,  lid 

thin,  even  curvature ' 1 

9.  Ears  —  medium     size,    fine,     pointed,    set     close, 

carried  alert 1 


PRACTICE  JUDGING  71 

Head  and  Neck.  —  Continued.  Counts 

10.  Muzzle  —  fine,  nostrils  large,  lips  thin,  trim,  even         1 

11.  Neck  —  long,  lean,  crest  well  defined,  extended  car- 

riage, well  cut  out  in  the  throttle,  head  well  set 

on 2 

Forehand.  —  23. 

12.  Shoulders  —  long,  oblique,  smooth 2 

13.  Arms  —  short,  muscular,  carried  well  forward      .     .  1 

14.  Forearms  —  long,  broad,  muscular 2 

15.  Knees  —  straight,  wide,  deep,  strongly  supported    .  2 

16.  Cannons  —  short,  broad,  flat,  tendons  sharply  de- 

fined, set  well  back 2 

17.  Fetlocks  —  wide,  tendons  well  back,  straight,   well 

supported 2 

18.  Pasterns  —  long,    oblique    (45    degrees),     smooth, 

strong 2 

19.  Feet  —  large,  round,  uniform,  straight,  slope  of  wall 

parallel  to  slope  of  pastern,  sole  concave,  bars 
strong,  frog  large,  elastic,  heels  wide,  full,  one 
third  height  of  toe,  horn  dense,  smooth,  dark  color  6 

20.  Legs  —  direction  viewed  from  in  front,  perpendicular 

line  dropped  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder 
should  divide  the  leg  and  foot  into  two  lateral 
halves.  Viewed  from  the  side,  a  perpendicular 
line  dropped  from  the  tuberosity  of  the  scapula 
should  pass  through  the  center  of  the  elbow  joint 
and  meet  the  ground  at  the  center  of  the  foot  .  4 

Body.  —  11. 

21.  Withers  —  well  set  up,  narrow,  extending  well  back  2 

22.  Chest  —  medium  width,  deep 2 

23.  Ribs  —  well  sprung,  long,  close 2 

24.  Back  —  short,  straight,  strong,  broad 2 

25.  Loins  —  short,  broad,  strongly  coupled 2 

26.  Flank  —  deep,  full,  long  low  under  line       ....  1 

Hindquarters.  —  31. 

27.  Hips  —  broad,  round,  smooth 2 

28.  Croup  —  long,  level,  smooth 2 


72  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

Hindquarters.  —  Continued.  Counts 

29.  Tail  —  set  high,  well  carried 1 

30.  Thighs  —  full,  muscular  '.  • 2 

31.  Stifles  —  broad*  full,  muscular 2 

32.  Gaskins  —  broad,  muscular 2 

33.  Hocks  —  straight,    wide,    point    prominent,    deep, 

clean  cut,  smooth,  well  supported       .....         6 

34.  Cannons  —  short,  broad,  flat,  tendons  sharply  de- 

fined, set  well  back 2 

35.  Fetlocks  —  wide,  tendons  well  back,   straight,  well 

supported 2 

36.  Pasterns  —  long,  oblique  (50  degrees) ,  smooth,  strong        2 

37.  Feet  —  large,  round  (slightly  less  than  in  front)  uni- 

form, straight,  slope  of  wall  parallel  to  slope  of 
pastern,  sole  concave,  bars  strong,  frog  large  and 
elastic,  heels  wide,  full,  one  third  height  of  toe, 
horn  dense,  smooth,  dark  color 4 

38.  Legs  —  direction  viewed  from  the  rear,  a  perpen- 

dicular line  dropped  from  the  point  of  the  buttock 
should  divide  the  leg  and  foot  into  lateral  halves  ; 
viewed  from  the  side  this  same  line  should  touch 
the  point  of  the  hock  and  meet  the  ground  some 
little  distance  back  of  the  heel.  A  perpendicular 
line  dropped  from  the  hip  joint  should  meet  the 
ground  near  the  center  of  the  foot 4 

Way  of  Going.  —  16. 

39.  Walk  —  long,  free  stride 6 

40.  Trot  —  long,  rapid,  straight,  reachy  stride      ...       10 

Total  100 


SCORE    CARD 
THE   SADDLE  HORSE 

Scale  of  Points 

General  Appearance.  —  12. 

1.  Height       

2.  Weight 


PRACTICE  JUDGING 


73 


General  Appearance.  —  Continued.  Counts 

3.  Form  —  close  but  not  full  made,  deep  but  not  broad, 

symmetrical 4 

4.  Quality  —  bone  clean,  dense,  fine,    yet   indicating 

substance,   tendons  and  joints   sharply    defined, 
hide  and  hair  fine,  general  refinement,  finish    .     .         4 

5.  Temperament  —  active,     disposition     good,     intel- 

ligent          4 

Head  and  Neck.  —  8. 

6.  Head  —  size  and  dimensions  in  proportion,  clear-cut 

features,  straight  face  line,  wide  angle  in  lower  jaw 

7.  Forehead  —  broad,  full    . 

8.  Eyes  —  prominent  orbit,   large,  full,  bright,  clear, 

lid  thin,  even  curvature 

9.  Ears  —  medium  size,  pointed,  set  close,  carried  alert 

10.  Muzzle  —  fine,  nostrils  large,  lips  thin,  trim,  even   . 

11.  Neck  —  long,  supple,  well  crested,  not  carried  too 

high,  throttle  well  cut  out,  head  well  set  on 


Forehand.  —  22. 

12.  Shoulders  —  very  long,  sloping  yet  muscular      .     . 

13.  Arms  —  short,  muscular,  carried  well  forward     .     . 

14.  Forearms  —  long,  broad,  muscular 

15.  Knees  —  straight,  wide,  deep,  strongly  supported    . 

16.  Cannons  —  short,  broad,  flat,  tendons  sharply  de- 

nned, set  well  back 

17.  Fetlocks  —  wide,  tendons  well  back,  straight,  well 

supported 

18.  Pasterns  —  long,    oblique    (45    degrees),     smooth, 

strong 

19.  Feet  —  large,  round,  uniform,  straight,  slope  of  wall 

parallel  to  slope  of  pastern,  sole  concave,  bars 
strong,  frog  large,  elastic,  heels  wide,  full,  one 
third  height  of  toe,  horn  dense,  smooth,  dark  color 

20.  Legs  —  direction    viewed   from    in    front,    perpen- 

dicular line  dropped  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder 
should  divide  the  leg  and  foot  into  two  lateral 
halves;  viewed  from  the  side,  a  perpendicular 
line  dropped  from  the  tuberosity  of  the  scapula 


74  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

Forehand.  —  Continued.  Counts 

should  pass  through  the  center  of  the  elbow  joint 
and  meet  the  ground  at  the  center  of  the  foot  .  4 

Body.  —  12. 

21.  Withers  —  high,  muscular,  well  finished  at  top,  ex- 

tending well  into  back 3 

22.  Chest  —  medium  width,  deep 2 

23.  Ribs  —  well  sprung,  long,  close 2 

24.  Back  —  short,  straight,  strong,  broad 2 

25.  Loin  —  short,  broad,  muscular,  strongly  coupled      .  2 

26.  Flank  —  deep,  full,  long,  low  under  line      ....  1 

Hindquarters.  —  31. 

27.  Hips  —  broad,  round,  smooth        2 

28.  Croup  —  long,  level,  round,  smooth       2 

29.  Tail  —  set  high,  well  carried 2 

30.  Thighs  —  full,  muscular       2 

31.  Stifles  —  broad,  full,  muscular 2 

32.  Gaskins  —  broad,  muscular 2 

33.  Hocks  —  straight,    wide,    point     prominent,    deep, 

clean  cut,  smooth,  well  supported 5 

34.  Cannons  —  short,  broad,  flat,  tendons  sharply  de- 

nned, set  well  back 2 

35.  Fetlocks  —  wide,  tendons  well  back,  straight,  well 

supported        2 

36.  Pasterns  —  long,    oblique    (50     degrees),    smooth, 

strong 2 

37.  Feet  — ' large,  round  (slightly  less  than  in  front),  uni- 

form, straight,  slope  of  wall  parallel  to  slope  of 
pastern,  sole  concave,  bars  strong,  frog  large  and 
elastic,  heels  wide,  full,  one  third  height  of  toe, 
horn  dense,  smooth,  dark  color 4 

38.  Legs  —  direction  —  viewed  from  the  rear  a  perpen- 

dicular line  dropped  from  the  point  of  the  buttock 
should  divide  the  leg  and  foot  into  lateral  halves ; 
viewed  from  the  side  this  same  line  should  touch 
the  point  of  the  hock  and  meet  the  ground  some 
little  distance  back  of  the  heel.  A  perpendicular 
line  dropped  from  the  hip  joint  should  meet  the 
ground  near  the  center  of  the  foot 4 


PRACTICE  JUDGING  75 

Way  of  Going.  —  15.  Counts 

39.  Walk  —  rapid,  flat  footed,  in  line 5 

40.  Trot  —  free,  springy  square,  going  well  off  hocks, 

not  extreme  knee  fold 5 

41.  Canter  —  slow,  collected,  either  lead,  no  cross  canter         5 

Total ,     .     .     100 

SCORE   CARD 

THE  MULE 
Scale  of  Points 

Counts 
General  Appearance.  —  16. 

1.  Height       .     .     , .     .     .     . 

2.  Weight 

3.  Form  —  broad,      deep,     compact,     smooth,     sym- 

metrical          4 

4.  Quality  —  refined  head  and  ears,  fine  hair,  clean  bone, 

good  texture  of  hoof 4 

5.  Condition  —  fat,  sleek,  well  furnished     .....         4 

6.  Temperament  —  active,  disposition  good    .     .    „     .         4 

Head  and  Neck.  —  7. 

7.  Head  —  size  and  dimensions  in  proportion,  clear-cut 

features,  face  line  straight  with  a  slightly  Roman 
nose '.•'•.     ...     ....'„.         1 

8.  Forehead  —  broad,  full 1 

9.  Eyes  —  prominent  orbit,  large,   full,  bright,   clear, 

thin  lid,  even  curvature 1 

10.  Ears  —  long,  pointed,  fine,  well  set,  carried  alert     .         1 

11.  Muzzle  —  broad,  nostrils  large  but  not  dilated,  lips 

thin,  even,  trim «»....         1 

12.  Neck  —  long,  muscular,  head  well  set  on   ....         2 

Forehand.  —  24. 

13.  Shoulder  —  long,  sloping,  smooth,  muscular    ...  2 

14.  Arm  —  short,  muscular,  elbow  in 2 

15.  Forearm  —  wide,  muscular        2 

16.  Knee  —  straight,  wide,  deep,  strongly  supported      .  2 


76  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

Forehand.  —  Continued.  Counts 

17.  Cannon  —  short,  broad,  flat,   tendons  sharply  de- 

fined, set  well  back 2 

18.  Fetlock  —  wide,  tendons  well  back,   straight,  well 

supported 2 

19.  Pastern  —  long,  oblique,  smooth,  strong     ....         2 

20.  Foot  —  large,  wide,  uniform,  straight,  slope  of  wall 

parallel  to  slope  of  pasterns,  sole  concave,  bars 
strong,  frog  large,  elastic ;  heels  wide,  full ;  horn 
dense,  smooth 6 

21.  Leg  —  viewed  from  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line 

dropped  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  should 
divide  the  leg  and  foot  into  two  lateral  halves; 
viewed  from  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line  dropped 
from  the  prominence  on  the  side  of  the  shoulder 
blade  should  pass  through  the  center  of  the  elbow 
joint  and  meet  the  ground  at  the  center  of  the 
foot 4 

Body.  —  11. 

22.  Withers  —  well  denned,  but  muscular         ....  2 

23.  Chest  —  deep,  wide 2 

24.  Ribs  —  well  sprung,  long,  close 2 

25.  Back  —  short,  straight,  strong,  broad 2 

26.  Loin  —  short,  broad,  strongly  coupled 2 

27.  Flank  —  deep,  full,  long,  low  under  line     ....  1 

Hindquarters.  —  32. 

28.  Hips  —  wide,  level,  muscular 2 

29.  Croup  —  long,  level,  muscular 2 

30.  Tail  —  attached  high,  well  carried 1 

31.  Thigh  —  deep,  muscular 2 

32.  Stifle  —  broad,  thick,  muscular 2 

33.  Gaskin  —  wide,  muscular 2 

34.  Hock  —  straight,  wide,  point  prominent,  deep,  clean 

cut,  smooth,  well  supported 6 

35.  Cannon  —  Short,  broad,  flat,  tendons  sharply  de- 

nned, set  well  back 2 

36.  Fetlock  —  wide,  tendons  well  back,   straight,  well 

supported 2 


PRACTICE  JUDGING  11 

Hindquarters.  —  Continued.  Counts 

37.  Pastern  —  long,  oblique,  smooth,  strong     ....         3 

38.  Foot  —  large,  wide,  uniform,  straight,  slope  of  wall 

parallel  to  slope  of  pastern,  sole  concave,  bars 
strong,  frog  large,  elastic,  heel  wide,  full,  horn 
dense,  smooth 4 

39.  Leg  —  viewed  from  the  rear,  a  perpendicular  line 

dropped  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should 
divide  the  leg  and  foot  into  lateral  halves ;  viewed 
from  the  side,  this  same  line  should  touch  the  point 
of  the  hock  and  meet  the  ground  some  little  dis- 
tance back  of  the  heel.  A  perpendicular  line 
dropped  from  the  hip  joint  should  meet  the  ground 
near  the  center  of  the  foot 4 

Way  of  Going.  —  10. 

40.  Walk  —  straight,  strong,  active 5 

41.  Trot  —  a  long,  straight,  free,  snappy  stride     ...         5 

SCORE    CARD 

THE   BEEF   STEER 

Scale  of  Points 

Counts 
General  Appearance.  —  40. 

1.  Weight 6 

2.  Form  —  low  station,  rectangular ;  straight,  parallel 

top  and  under  lines;    broad,  deep,   symmetrical       10 

3.  Quality  —  hide  medium  thickness,    loose,    pliable, 

sappy;  hair  fine;  bone  dense,  smooth;  flesh 
firm,  even,  smooth  10 

4.  Condition  —  thick  even  covering  of  firm  flesh,  well- 

filled  purse  and  flank,  indicating  ripeness     ...       10 

5.  Temperament  —  lymphatic  —  disposed  to  fatten     .         4 

Head  and  Neck.  —  8. 

6.  Head  —  short,  broad,  deep,  proportioned   ....  1 

7.  Forehead  —  broad,  full 1 

8.  Face  —  short,  broad,  placid  even  lazy  expression     .  1 

9.  Eyes  —  large,  full,  clear 1 


78  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

Head  and  Neck.  —  Continued.  Counts 

10.  Ears  —  medium  size,  set  high,  carried  alert    ...          1 

11.  Horns  —  symmetrical,    medium    size,    fine    texture 

(sharp,  well-defined  poU)        1 

12.  Muzzle  —  broad,  nostrils  large 1 

13.  Neck  —  short,    thick,    not    heavy    in    throat,    full 

shoulder  vein 1 

Forequarters:  —  8. 

14.  Shoulder  —  well  laid  in,  compact  on  top,   thickly 

covered,  especially  on  side 4 

15.  Brisket  —  square,  broad,  and  full,  dewlap  light,  not 

pendant,  muscular 2 

16.  Leg  —  short,  straight,  bone  fine 2 

Body.  —  34. 

17.  Back  —  broad,  level,  thickly  covered 10 

18.  Ribs  —  well    sprung,   deep,   heart  girth    large,  rib 

thickly  covered,  crops  full 8 

19.  Chest  —  deep,  full,  level  on  the  floor 4 

20.  Loin  —  broad,  thickly  covered,  smooth,  level      .     .  10 

21.  Flank  —  deep,  full,  straight  under  line 2 

Hindquarters.  —  10. 

22.  Hips  —  broad,  level,  smooth,  not  prominent  ...          1 

23.  Rump  —  long,  broad,   level,   smooth,   straight  top 

line        2 

24.  Thighs  —  broad,  thick,  deep,  full 3 

25.  Twist  —  low,  full    .     .     . 2 

26.  Legs  —  muscular,  short,  straight,  bone  fine ....  2 

SCORE   CARD 

THE  DAIRY   COW 

Scale  of  Points 

Counts 

General  Appearance.  —  28. 

1.  Weight 4 

2.  Form  —  triangular,  wedge  shaped  from  side,  front, 

above ;   symmetrical,  straight  top  line     ....         6 


PRACTICE  JUDGING  79 

General  Appearance.  —  Continued.  Counts 

3.  Quality  —  refined  head  ;     hide  medium  thickness, 

loose,  pliable,  hair  fine,  secretions  abundant  and 
highly  colored  ;  bone  clean    ..:.....         6 

4.  Condition  —  lean,  spare,  indicating  productiveness ; 

no  beefiness 6 

5.  Temperament  —  nervous,   insuring  most   economic 

use  of  nutrients  in  milk  production ;    disposition 
good       .     ._  .     ,    .' 6 

Head  and  Neck.  —  8. 

6.  Head  —  long,  narrow,  feminine  ;    intelligent  expres- 

sion             1 

7.  Forehead  —  broad,  flat 1 

8.  Face  —  face  line  straight  except  as  altered  by  breed 

character 1 

9.  Eyes  —  large,  clear,  mild,   yet  indicative  of  nerve 

force 1 

10.  Ears  —  medium  size,  fine  texture,  set  high  and  well 

carried 1 

11.  Horns  —  Symmetrical  size  and  shape,  fine  texture, 

considerable  curvature  ;  special  features  according 

to  breed 1 

12.  Muzzle  —  broad,  nostrils  large -1 

13.  Neck  —  long,  lean,  light,  clean-cut  throat       ...  1 

Forequarters.  —  6. 

14.  Shoulder  —  long,  light,  well  laid  in,  narrow  on  top  4 

15.  Brisket  —  not  prominent 2 

16.  Legs  —  straight,  bone  ample 2 

Body.  —  26. 

17.  Chine  —  narrow,  light,  spines  sharp,  wide  apart,  open  6 

18.  Ribs  —  deep,  arched  below 6 

19.  Chest  —  deep,  full,  level  on  the  floor      .....  6 

20.  Loin  —  broad,  level 6 

21.  Flank  —  deep,  rather  open        ........  2 

Hindquarters.  —  8. 

22.  Hips  —  wide  apart,  prominent  as  in    open  frame, 

symmetrical    .     .     .     » 1 


80  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

Hindquarters.  —  Continued.  Counts 

23.  Rump  —  long,  level,  broad,   lean,  pin  bones  wide 

apart,  tail  head  smooth,  on  line   with  back,  no 
droop,  tail  long,  fine 3 

24.  Thighs  —  long,  lean,  concave  from  sides  and  rear, 

not  beefy 2 

25.  Legs  —  straight,  strong 2 

Udder.—  24. 

26.  Size  —  large,  attached  high  behind,  well  forward, 

well  suspended  not  pendant 6 

27.  Shape  —  quarters  even,  square,  level 6 

28.  Texture  —  soft,  elastic,  hair  fine,  veins  prominent    .  6 

29.  Teats  —  medium  size,  well  placed 4 

30.  Mammary    (milk)    veins  —  large,    tortuous,    large 

wells,  extensions 2 

SCORE    CARD 

THE   MUTTON    SHEEP 

Scale  of  Points 

Counts 
General  Appearance.  —  40. 

1.  Weight 6 

2.  Form  —  low     station,    rectangular,    broad,    deep, 

thickly   fleshed,    symmetrical,    straight   top   and 
under  line 10 

3.  Quality  —  refined  head,  fine  fleece,  hair  and  skin, 

clean  bone 10 

4.  Condition  —  thick,   even  covering    of    firm    flesh ; 

thick  neck,  dock ;  full  purse  and  flank  indicating 
ripeness 10 

5.  Temperament  —  lymphatic,  disposed  to  fatten    .     .         4 

Head  and  Neck.  —  7. 

6.  Head  —  short,  broad,  deep 1 

7.  Forehead  —  broad,  full         1 

8.  Eyes  —  large,  full,  bright 1 

9.  Ears  —  fine,  well  shaped,  carried  alert   .....  1 
10.    Muzzle  —  broad,  nostril  large        1 


PRACTICE  JUDGING  81 

Head  and  Neck.  —  Continued.  Counts 

11.  Horns  —  medium  size,  fine  texture,  symmetrical      .         1 

12.  Neck  —  short,    thick,   full    shoulder    vein,    throat 

clean 1 

Forequarters.  —  7. 

13.  Shoulder  —  broad,  smooth,  compact  on  top,  thickly 

fleshed 4 

14.  Brisket  —  broad,  full,  square    ........         2 

15.  Legs  —  short,  straight,  strong,  clean  bone       ...         1 

Body.  —  25. 

16.  Back  —  straight,  strong,  broad,  thickly  fleshed        .  8 

17.  Ribs  —  well  sprung,  deep,  crops  full 4 

18.  Chest  —  deep,  full,  broad  on  the  floor 3 

19.  Loin  —  broad,  thickly  fleshed        '.     .  8 

20.  Flank  —  deep,  full       ..." 2 

Hindquarters.  —  12. 

21.  Rump  —  long,  level,  broad,  smooth        3 

22.  Leg  of  mutton  —  broad,  deep,  thick ;  twist  full,  well 

let  down  in  the  seam 8 

23.  Legs  —  short,  straight,  strong,  clean  bone       ...         1 

Fleece.  —  9. 

24.  Quantity  —  long,  dense,  even  distribution       ...         3 

25.  Quality  —  fine  staple,  close  even  crimp,  luster     .     .         3 

26.  Condition  —  sound,  medium  amount  of  oily  yolk, 

soft,  pure,  bright 3 

SCORE   CARD 

THE   WOOL   SHEEP 

Scale  of  Points 

Counts 
General  Appearance.  —  26. 

1.  Weight 4 

2.  Form  —  low     station,     rectangular,    broad,    deep, 

thickly  fleshed,  symmetrical,  straight  top  line  and 
under  line    .  6 


82  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

General  Appearance.  —  Continued.  Counts 

3.  Quality  —  refined  head,  fine  fleece,  hair  and  skin, 

clean  bone 6 

4.  Condition  —  thick,   even    covering    of    firm    flesh ; 

thick  neck,  dock ;  full  purse  and  flank  indicating 
ripeness 6 

5.  Temperament  —  active 4 

Head  and  Neck.  —  7. 

6.  Head  —  short,  broad,  deep 

7.  Forehead  —  broad,  full 

8.  Eyes  —  large,  full,  bright . 

9.  Ears  —  fine,  well  shaped,  carried  alert 

10.  Muzzle  —  broad,  nostrils  large 

11.  Horns  —  medium    size,    fine    texture,    symmetrical 

12.  Neck  —  short,  thick,  full  shoulder  vein,  throat  clean 

Forequarters.  —  8. 

13.  Shoulder  —  broad,  smooth,  compact  on  top,  thickly 

fleshed 4 

14.  Brisket  —  broad,  full,  square 2 

15.  Legs  —  short,  straight,  strong,  clean  bone      ...         2 

Body.  —  26. 

16.  Back  —  straight,  strong,  broad,  thickly  fleshed    .    .  6 

17.  Ribs  —  well  sprung,  deep,  crops  full 6 

18.  Chest  —  deep,  full,  broad  on  the  floor 6 

19.  Loin  —  broad,  thickly  fleshed 6 

20.  Flank  —  deep,  full 2 

Hindquarters.  —  9. 

21.  Rump  —  long,  level,  broad,  smooth 3 

22.  Leg  of  mutton  —  broad,  deep,  thick ;  twist  full,  well 

let  down  in  the  seam 4 

23.  Legs  —  short,  straight,  strong,  clean  bone      ...         2 

Fleece.  —  24. 

24.  Quantity  —  long,  dense,  even  distribution      ...         8 

25.  Quality  —  fine  staple,  close  even  crimp,  luster     .     .         8 

26.  Condition  —  sound,  medium  amount  of  oily  yolk, 

soft,  pure,  bright 8 


PRACTICE  JUDGING  83 

SCORE  CARD 
THE  FAT  HOG 
Scale  of  Points 

Counts 

General  Appearance. 

1.  Weight G 

2.  Form  —  low  station,  rectangular,  broad,  deep,  long, 

smooth,  symmetrical  .     .     .     .    • 10 

3.  Quality  —  refined  head,    smooth,    sides    free    from 

wrinkles,  fine  straight  hair,  clean  bone    ....       10 

4.  Condition  —  thick,    even    covering    of    firm    flesh, 

neither  too  hard  nor  too  soft,  no  slipping     ...  10 

5.  Temperament  —  lymphatic,  disposed  to  fatten    .     .  4 
Head  and  Neck. 

6.  Head  —  short,  broad,  deep 1 

7.  Snout  —  comparatively  short,  fine     .     .     .     .     .     .  1 

8.  Eyes  —  large,  bright,  wide  apart  . 1 

9.  Face  —  moderately    dished,    according    to     breed, 

broad  between  the  eyes 1 

10.  Ears  —  medium  size,  pointed,  thin,  carried  well  up  1 

11.  Jowl  —  full,  deep,  trim 1 

12.  Neck  —  thick,  deep,  short,  top  line  sharply  curved 

upward 1 

Foreq  uarters. 

13.  Shoulder  —  wide,  smooth  on  sides,  compact  on  top         4 

14.  Breast  —  prominent,  full 2 

15.  Legs  —  short,  straight,  strong,  clean  bone      ...         2 
Body. 

16.  Chest  —  deep,  wide,  full,  no  constriction    ....         3 

17.  Back  —  broad,    thickly   covered,    well    supported, 

arched 10 

18.  Sides  —  long,  deep,  smooth,  firm,  thickly  covered    .  6 

19.  Loin  —  broad,  thickly  covered 10 

20.  Flank  —  deep,  full,  under  line  straight 2 

Hindquarters. 

21.  Rump  —  long,  broad,  level 2 

22.  Ham  —  wide,  deep,  full,  well  rounded,  firm     ...  10 

23.  Legs  —  short,  straight,  strong,  clean  bone  ....         2 


84  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

SCORE   CARD 

THE   BACON   HOG 

Scale  of  Points 

Counts 
General  Appearance.  —  40. 

1.  Weight  (160  to  200  Ib.) 6 

2.  Form  —  long,  deep,  narrow,  trim,  symmetrical    .     .  10 

3.  Quality  —  refined   head,   smooth,   sides    free    from 

wrinkles,  fine  straight  hair,  clean  bone    ....  10 

4.  Condition  —  firm,  even  covering,  ample  lean  in  pro- 

portion to  fat 10 

5.  Temperament  —  active 4 

Head  and  Neck.  —  8. 

6.  Head  —  long,  medium  width,  fine 1 

7.  Snout  —  medium  length,  tapering 1 

8.  Eyes  —  large,  wide  apart 1 

9.  Face  —  moderately  dished  according  to  breed,  lean  1 

10.  Ears  —  medium  size,  fine 1 

11.  Jowl  — light,   neat 2 

12.  Neck  —  medium  length,  full,  level  on  top  ....  1 

Forequarters.  —  10. 

13.  Shoulder  —  light,  straight,  smooth,  compact  on  top  6 

14.  Breast  —  medium  width 2 

15.  Legs  —  straight,  strong,  clean  bone 2 

Body.  —  30. 

16.  Chest  — deep,  full 5 

17.  Back  —  long,     strong,     medium     uniform     width, 

thickly  covered .  6 

18.  Side  —  long,  deep,  firm,  smooth,  trim 12 

19.  Loin  —  medium  width,  strong,  thickly  covered   .     .  5 

20.  Flank  —  deep,  full,  trim  under  line    ......  2 

Hindquarters.  —  12. 

21.  Rump  —  long,  level,  medium  width 4 

22.  Gammon  —  thick,  deep,  tapering,  trim      ....  6 

23.  Legs  —  straight,  strong,  clean  bone  .     .....  2 


PRACTICE  JUDGING 


85 


82.  Demonstrations  may  supplement  scoring,  the 
subjects  being  chosen  with  the  view  of  showing  both  de- 
sirable and  undesirable  features.  Discussion  should  not 
be  confined  to  noting  defects  and  criticizing  them  but 
should  give  equal  prominence  to  the  good  points  and  com- 
mending them.  Neither  should  the  subjects  of  demon- 


FIG.  35.  —  Outline  drawing  of  a  horse. 

stration  be  chosen  for  their  excellence,  altogether,  for  it  is 
as  essential  to  know  those  features  of  form  that  are 
opposed  to  greatest  functional  capacity  as  it  is  those  upon 
which  maximum  productiveness  depends. 

Comments  and  criticisms  may  be  recorded  briefly  on 
blank  forms  having  an  outline  of  the  animal  in  ques- 
tion (Figs.  35,  36,  37,  38,  39).  This  serves  the  double 


86  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

purpose  of  directing  the  student's  attention  to  definite 
points  in  the  animal  form  and  affording  a  means  of  mak- 
ing a  concise  report  of  his  observations.  It  does  away 
with  the  monotonous  and  confusing  figures  of  the  score 
card  which  often  engage  much  of  the  student's  time  that 
might  be  more  advantageously  spent  in  studying  the 


FIG.  36.  —  Outline  drawing  of  a  beef  steer. 


merits  and  demerits  of  the  animals  before  him.  The  out- 
line blank  may  be  double  faced,  one  side  to  be  used  for 
criticisms,  and  the  other  for  indicating  the  points  of 
excellence. 

83.  Comparisons.  —  After  score  card  practice,  demon- 
strations and  discussions  which  perfect  the  student  in 
analysis,  exercises  in  simple  comparison  should  follow 
by  the  introduction  of  more  than  one  subject.  Comparison 
involves  not  only  measuring  the  character  in  question  to 
the  standard  in  the  mind's  eye  but  carrying,  in  the  eye, 


PRACTICE  JUDGING 


87 


the  image  of  the  character  of  one  individual  until  there 
can  be  placed  beside  it,  in  the  judge's  vision,  the  analogous 
character  of  another  individual,  so  that  an  opportunity 
for  comparison  may  be  afforded.  By  repeated  comparisons 
the  ideal  is  gradually  crystallized  in  the  student's  mind, 
the  good  points  being  rendered  more  conspicuous  by  being 


FIG.  37.  —  Outline  drawing  of  a  dairy  cow. 

set  off,  as  it  were,  by  the  bad  points  and  conversely, 
deficiencies  becoming  more  marked  in  contrast  with 
merit. 

84.  Competitive  judging.  —  Finally,  but  only  after 
having  acquired  skillful  method,  keen  perception,  and  a 
definite  notion  of  the  ideal,  the  student  may  be  permitted 
to  carry  his  comparisons  a  step  farther  and  bring  the  dif- 
ferent comparable  characters  into  actual  competition, 
first  covering  parts  or  regions  only,  as  heads  and  necks, 


88 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


or    hindquarters,    then   including   the   individuals    as    a 
whole. 

This  step  by  step  method  has  been  found  much  more 
effective  than  to  plunge  students  immediately  into  the 


FIG.  38.  —  Outline  drawing  of  a  mutton  wether. 


perplexities  of  "  placing  "  a  class  of  animals  before  they 
have  acquired  the  standard  to  which  they  are  to  select 
or  mastered  the  art  of  applying  it.  It  is  interesting  to 
note,  in  this  connection,  the  different  tactics  employed 
in  coaching  student  teams  for  judging  contests.  Some 


PRACTICE  JUDGING 


89 


trainers  condition  their  race  horses  by  repeated  trials  of 
as  great  severity  as  the  race  itself  ;  others  spend  their 
preliminary  seasons  in  perfecting  the  gait  of  their  horses, 
balancing,  biting  and  schooling,  at  the  same  time  giving 
them  sufficient  work  to  render  them  physically  capable 
of  a  more  strenuous  effort  than  they  are,  but  rarely,  called 
upon  to  make  in  their  work  outs. 

The  latter  is  conceded  to  be  the  better  method.     So  it  is 
with  the  instructors.     Some  lay  most  stress  on  the  number 


FIG.  39.  —  Outline  drawing  of  a  fat  barrow. 

of  classes  which  their  teams  have  had  an  opportunity  of 
placing,  notwithstanding  that  such  placing  may  have  been 
made  under  wholly  unsatisfactory  conditions,  as  when 
no  chance  is  afforded  for  subsequent  discussion.  Such 
work  tends  to  confuse  and  render  chaotic  whatever 
correct  notions  the  students  may  have  entertained. 
Others,  and  usually  the  more  successful  ones,  spend  the 
time  after  their  team  is  chosen,  which  is  usually  on  the 
basis  of  competitive  judging,  in  demonstrations  and  dis- 


90  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

cussions  of  typical  and  atypical  representatives  of  the 
types  and  breeds,  creating  thereby  a  clearer  conception 
of  the  ideals,  more  accurate  powers  of  observation,  and 
more  logical  judgment  for  making  competitive  decisions 
when  the  crucial  time  for  them  arrives. 


PART   III 
JUDGING  HORSES 


91 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  INDIVIDUAL 

IDEALS  are  the  bases  upon  which  animals  are  judged, 
and  they  may  concern  the  individuals,  the  types  and  the 
breeds  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  swine. 

86.  The  horse,  Equus  caballus.  —  There  is  archaBological 
evidence  that  the  horse  served  primitive  man  of  the  stone 
age  together  with  the  reindeer  and  the  dog,  although  there 
is  no  authentic  historical  reference  to  his  use  prior  to  the 
time  of  Joseph  in  Egypt,  1715  B.C.  While  the  mare's  milk 
and  horse  meat  have  been  used  in  a  very  limited  way,  the 
horse's  power  and  speed  have  been  the  attributes  most 
commonly  made  use  of  by  those  who  have  subjugated 
and  domesticated  him.  He  is  more  than  a  simple  beast  of 
burden,  in  which  field  he  was  preceded  and  in  some  ways 
excelled  by  the  dog,  reindeer,  camel,  elephant,  ox,  ass 
and  mule  ;  he  has  taken  a  most  important  part  in  warfare 
and  the  conquests  of  nations,  the  elaborate  ceremonies  of 
church  and  state,  the  sports  and  pastimes  of  the  people 
and  finally  in  their  agricultural  and  commercial  pursuits. 

86.  Performance.  —  The  entire  organization  of  the 
horse  is  designed  to  enhance  his  locomotion,  and  there  is 
no  domestic  animal  whose  movements  are  so  characterized 
by  power,  agility  and  grace  as  those  of  the  horse.  He  is 
endowed  with  such  mental  limitations  as  to  render  his 
capabilities  in  locomotion  most  subservient  to  his  master's 
demands.  The  performance  required  of  the  horse  is 


94 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


FIG.  40.  —  Sagittal  section  of  distal  part  of 
limb  of  horse.  1,  large  metacarpal  (fore 
cannon)  bone ;  3,  fetlock  joint ;  4,  proximal 
sesamoid  bone  ;  5,  first  phalanx ;  6,  pastern 
joint;  7,  second  phalanx;  8,  coffin  joint; 
9,  third  phalanx  ;  10,  distal  sesamoid  (navic- 
ular  bone);  12,  suspensory  ligament;  14, 
deep  flexor  tendon ;  15,  superficial  flexor 
tendon ;  16,  posterior  annular  ligament  of 
fetlock ;  20,  inferior  sesamoidean  ligaments  ; 
21,  extensor  tendon;  24,  plantar  cushion; 
25,  periople ;  28,  wall  of  hoof ;  29,  sole  of 
hoof ;  A,  navicular  bursa,  proximal  part. 
(After  Ellenberger-Baum,  Anat.  fur  Kiiiist- 
ler.) 


not  simply  to  be 
something,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  meat 
producing  animals, 
nor  yet  as  in  the  case 
of  the  dairy  cow, 
which  yields  her 
body  products,  day 
by  day,  rather  than 
accumulating  them 
in  a  carcass,  but  to 
do  various  and  often- 
times very  complex 
things.  The  func- 
tional possibilities  of 
the  horse,  as  in  the 
case  of  any  other 
animal,  can  best  be 
ascertained  by  study 
of  the  mechanical 
structure  upon  which 
these  functions  de- 
pend. 

87.  The  structure 
analogous  with  that 
of  man.  — The  struc- 
ture of  the  horse  so 
far  as  bones,  joints 
and  muscles  are  con- 
cerned is,  with  a 
few  minor  excep- 
tions, very  closely 
analogous  to  the 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  95 

structure  of  man,  provided  that  man  assumes  the  hori- 
zontal and  quadrupedal  position,  and  rests  on  the  tips 
of  his  fingers  and  toes.  The  horse  has  no  collar  bone, 
the  union  between  trunk  and  anterior  extremities  being 
wholly  muscular,  and  the  relative  length  of  fore  and 
hind  legs  is  such  as  to  maintain  the  body  in  a  perfectly 
horizontal  rather  than  an  inclined  attitude.  He  has  one 
digit  instead  of  five  and  rests  only  on  the  last  segment  of 
it,  so  that  the  wrist  corresponds  to  the  horse's  knee, 
the  knuckle  to  his  fetlock  joint  and  the  three  phalanges  of 
the  finger  to  his  first  and  second  pastern,  and  pedal  bones 
(Fig.  40).  Likewise  the  knee  of  the  man  is  the  stifle  of 
the  horse,  the  calf  of  his  leg  the  gaskin  of  the  horse,  his 
heel  the  horse's  hock,  and  so  on  as  in  the  foreleg.  As  the 
man  raises  his  weight  well* up  on  his  toes  and  feels  the 
tension  of  the  muscles  of  the  thigh  and  lower  leg  he  can 
well  understand  what  takes  place  when  the  horse  "  lifts  " 
in  the  starting  or  moving  of  a  load  or  in  merely  pro- 
jecting his  own  body  forward,  in  locomotion. 

88.  Mechanical  structure.  —  The  structure  of  the  horse, 
mechanically  considered,  consists  of  a  trunk  suspended  by 
an  arch,  the  vertebral  column,  supported  at  each  end  by 
four  vertical  columns,  the  legs,  the  anatomical  features 
of  which  have  already  been  described  in  Chapter  II. 
Greater  weight  is  borne  on  the  forelegs  because  the 
appended  head  and  neck  bring  the  center  of  gravity  well 
forward  of  the  center  of  the  body.  The  arrangement  by 
which  the  body  is  slung  between  the  two  forelegs  by  the 
great  pectoral  muscles  and  the  slope  of  shoulder  and 
pastern  provide  for  the  supporting  of  this  weight,  especially 
during  locomotion,  with  least  concussion.  The  center  of 
gravity  being  displaced  further  forward  when  the  horse  is 
in  motion,  still  greater  weight  is  thrown  on  the  forelegs, 


96  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

the  hind  legs  serving  as  propellers.  The  articulation  of 
the  thigh  directly  with  the  pelvis  conveys  the  propulsive 
effort  throughout  the  entire  length  of  the  spinal  column. 
The  supportive  action  of  the  forelegs  meets  the  propul- 
sive action  of  the  hind  legs  in  such  a  way  as  to  restore  the 
equilibrium  of  the  body. 

The  joints  of  the  leg  are  hinge  joints,  capable  of  motion 
in  two  directions  only,  flexion  and  extension,  while  the 
joints  of  the  hip  and  shoulder,  points  at  which  the  legs 
articulate  with  the  body,  are  ball  and  socket  joints,  which 
permit  of  a  rotary  motion.  The  legs,  generally  speaking, 
are  therefore  capable  of  alternate  flexion  and  extension, 
which  take  place  in  the  order  named,  although  the  flexion 
of  the  leg  as  a  whole  may  involve  the  extension  of  some 
one  joint,  as  in  the  case  of  the  shoulder  at  the  commence- 
ment of  flexion  of  the  leg. 

89.  The  stride.  —  Flexion  of  the  leg,  which  raises  the 
foot  from  the  ground,  plus  extension  of  the  leg,  which  carries 
the  foot  forward  until  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  ground, 
again  constitute  a  stride,  and  by  the  simultaneous  or  suc- 
cessive strides  of  the  four  legs,  regularly  repeated,  the  body 
is  advanced.     Each   leg  may  engage   in    a   stride    inde- 
pendently, as  in  the  case  of  the  walk  and  the  rack  or  single 
foot,  in  which  the  cadence  is  distinctly  marked  by  four 
beats ;    one  fore  and  the  opposite  hind  leg  may  operate 
separately,  while  the  other  two  act  as  one,  as  is  done 
in  the  gallop,   there  being  three  distinct  beats   but  of 
irregular  cadence;    a  fore  and  a  hind  leg  may  move  in 
unison  and  mark  but  two  beats,  as  in  the  trot,  when  a 
diagonal  pair  are  concerned,  as  the  near  fore  and   the 
off  hind,  or  in  the  pace,  when  a  lateral  pair,  as  the  near 
fore  and  the  near  hind,  cooperate. 

90.  Deviations  in  the  stride.  —  There  is  an  active  and 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  97 

a  passive  period  in  this  form  of  locomotion  which  each 
leg  or  set  of  legs  experiences  in  alternate  order.  One  leg, 
a  pair  of  legs  or  a  set  of  three  legs  supports  the  weight 
of  the  horse  while  the  other  leg  or  legs  is  executing  a 
stride.  Hence,  we  can  distinguish  a  supporting  leg  and  a 
striding  leg,  and  we  find  that  deviations  in  the  way  of  going 
may  be  accounted  for  by  abnormalities  operative  during 
either  or  both  periods.  For  instance,  some  lamenesses 
are  manifested  only  when  the  leg  is  supporting,  while 
others  are  characterized  as  striding  or  swinging  leg  lame- 
ness. A  horse  may  interfere  because  of  a  base-narrow,  toe- 
wide  position,  which  places  the  fetlock  of  the  supporting 
leg  so  near  the  median  plane  as  to  insure  its  being 
struck,  but  the  likelihood  of  its  being  struck  is  greatly 
enhanced  by  the  fact  that  the  same  defective  position  of 
leg  which  causes  the  fetlock  to  approach  the  median  plane 
is  also  responsible  for  the  striding  leg's  being  swung  in  a 
circle  inward.  This  of  itself  might  be  productive  of  in- 
terfering, but  to  be  added  to  the  results  of  such  a  position 
in  the  supporting  leg  makes  interfering  doubly  certain. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  shortened  stride  of  the  spavined 
horse  involves  a  condition  which  manifests  itself  in  the 
striding  leg  only. 

91.  The  phases  of  the  stride.  —  The  evolution  of  the 
stride  involves  five  distinct  phases,  a  preliminary,  during 
which  the  leg  is  undergoing  flexion,  but  the  foot  has  not 
left  the  ground,  —  the  point  at  which  the  real  stride 
begins ;  next,  the  breaking  over,  in  which  the  foot  is  raised 
heel  first  and  leaves  the  ground  by  being  rocked  up  and 
over  at  the  toe,  although  at  speed  the  foot  springs  directly 
from  the  ground,  not  waiting  to  break  over  at  the  toe  ;  then 
flight,  during  which  the  foot  is  describing  a  more  or  less 
regular  arc  of  a  perpendicular  circle  ;  followed  by  contact, 


98  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

at  which  point  the  foot  is  again  brought  to  the  ground  ; 
and  finally  recovery,  as  the  weight  gradually  falls  on  the 
foot  and  the  original  position  of  the  leg  is  momentarily 
established  preparatory  to  a  repetition  of  the  stride. 

92.  The  features  of  the  stride  which  constitute  the  way 
of   going.  —  The   following  features   are   manifested   by 
the  stride  as  it  is  executed,  some  being  most  marked  in 
one  type  of  horse,  while  others  are  more  characteristic 
of  another. 

Length,  as  determined  by  the  distance  measured  from 
the  point  at  which  the  horse  breaks  over  to  the  point  at 
which  his  foot  comes  in  contact  with  the  ground  again. 

Directness,  referring  to  the  line  of  flight  of  the  foot 
during  the  stride. 

Rapidity,  which  determines  the  time  consumed  in  tak- 
ing the  stride. 

Power,  which  the  horse  is  capable  of  exerting  in  his  stride. 

Height,  the  degree  of  elevation  through  which  the  foot 
passes  in  describing  the  arc  of  a  circle  in  the  stride. 

Elasticity,  the  spring  with  which  the  weight  is  borne 
by  the  leg  and  foot  just  before  the  commencement  or  just 
after  the  completion  of  the  stride. 

Regularity,  the  machine- like  order  in  which  each  stride  is 
taken  in  turn. 

Balance,  referring  to  the  comparative  display  of  any 
or  all  of  the  other  features  in  hind  as  against  fore  legs. 

The  sum  total  of  these  features  as  described  by  the  horse 
in  the  succession  of  strides  by  which  he  moves  constitutes 
the  way  of  going. 

93.  Pace.  —  Length  and  rapidity  of  stride  contribute 
to  pace ;  that  is,  the  rate  at  which  the  horse  moves. 

94.  Action.  —  Height  and   spring  of   the  stride   mark 
action ;  that  is,  flexion  of  knees  and  hocks. 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  99 

96.  Gait.  —  A  gait  is  a  particular  way  of  going  charac- 
terized by  definite  and  distinctive  features,  regularly  exe- 
cuted. The  gaits  are : 

96.  The  walk,  a  slow,  flat-footed,  four-beat  gait,  which 
is  one  of  the  most  useful  if  properly  executed  with  snap 
and  animation,  whether  in  harness  or  under  saddle.  The 
walk  should  not  be  considered  useful  simply  to  afford  the 


FIG.  41.  —  A  trotter  at  speed,  showing  the  reach  or  extension  of  the 
stride  characteristic  of  this  gait. 

horse  an  opportunity  to  rest,  but  should  be  regarded  as  a 
distinct  form  of  locomotion,  with  as  definite  a  purpose  as 
any  other  gait  which  the  horse  goes. 

97.  The  trot,  a  rapid,  two-beat  gait  in  which  the  di- 
agonal fore  and  hind  legs  act  together.  There  are  three 
varieties  of  trot,  viz. :  the  fast  stepping  trot,  characterized 
by  the  length  of  stride  and  rapidity  with  which  the  indi- 
vidual strides  are  taken  and  constituting  the  gait  of  the  har- 


100 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  101 

ness  race  horse  (Fig.  41) ;  the  high  stepping  trot,  char- 
acterized by  the  height  and  elasticity  of  the  stride,  the 
horse  placing  himself,  going  collectedly  and  marking  each 
step  with  extreme  flexion  as  represented  in  the  harness 
show  horse  (Fig.  42)  ;  and  the  saddle  trot,  characterized 


FIG.  43.  —  The  saddle  horse   trot;    going  collectedly,   well  off  hocks, 
moderate  knee  action,  and  a  springy  stride. 

by  a  square,  springy,  collected  and  balanced  stride,  ex- 
ecuted in  perfect  rhythm  and  with  the  utmost  precision 
in  order  to  insure  the  comfort  and  security  of  the  rider 
(Fig.  43).  The  saddle  trot  is  distinct  from  the  long, 
swinging  stride  of  the  trotter,  also  the  high,  sometimes 
pounding  step  of  the  actor,  and  should  reveal  none  of  the 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  103 

roll  or  side  motion  of  the  lateral  gait  into  which  saddle 
horses  degenerate. 

98.  The  pace,  a  rapid,  two-beat  gait  distinguished  from 
the  trot  by  the  fact  that  the  lateral  fore  and  hind  legs 
act  together.     It  is  characterized  by  the  readiness  with 
which  pacers  can  get  away  at  speed,  more  or  less  side 
motion  (the  so-called  side  wheeler),  the  absence  of  much 
knee  fold,  and  therefore  the  minimum  of  concussion,  and 
the  necessity  for  smooth,  hard  footing  and  easy  draft  for 
its  execution  (Fig.  44).     This,  like  the  trot,  is  the  gait 
of  the  harness  race  horse. 

99.  The  amble,  a  lateral  gait  distinguished  from  the 
pace  by  being  slower  and  more  broken  in  cadence.     The 
natural  amble  is  the  foundation  for  the  so-called  saddle 
gaits,  exclusive  of  walk,  trot  and  canter. 

100.  The  rack,  a  fast,  flashy,  four-beat  gait,  well  de- 
scribed by  the  discarded  term  "single  foot"  (Fig.  45). 
The  rack  is  the  gait  which  distinguishes  the  five-gaited 
saddle  horse.     While  some  display  greater  aptitude  than 
others,  few  horses  will  rack  of  their  own  accord,  or  on 
the    halter,  but  only  when  called  upon  to  do  so  with 
both  hand  and  heel,   being  ridden  well  up  to  the  curb. 
It   is   preeminently  a  show  gait    characterized   by  con- 
siderable  action  and  in  many  instances  quite  a  bit  of 
speed. 

101.  The  gallop,  a  fast  three-beat  gait  in  which  two 
diagonal  legs  act  together,  their  one  beat  falling  between 
the  successive  beats  of  the  other  two  legs,  the  hind  one 
of  which  makes  the  first  beat  of  the  three.     With  the  third 
and  last  beat,  the  horse  is  carried  clear  of  the  ground 
and  there  is  a  period  of  silence  broken  by  the  contact  of 
the  independent  hind  foot  as  it  begins  a  new  series  of 
strides.     The   two   legs   acting  independently,   the  fore, 


104 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


with  which  the  horse  leads,  and  its  diagonal  hind,  naturally 
bear  more  weight  and  are  subject  to  more  fatigue  than 
are  the  other  pair,  which  act  simultaneously,  and  therefore 
share  the  work.  The  hind  leg  receiving  the  full  weight, 
at  the  phase  of  contact  at  the  conclusion  of  the  jump, 


A  gaitcd  saddle  horse  at  the  rack,   although  the  four-beat 
phase  of  this  gait  is  not  shown. 


bears  more  than  the  foreleg,  which  supports  the  weight 
alone,  just  before  the  projection  of  the  horse  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  jump.  The  gallop  may  become  so  fast  as  to 
break  the  simultaneous  beats  of  the  diagonal  pair,  the  hind 
foot  striking  first  and  causing  four  beats,  although  follow- 


THE  INDIVIDUAL 


105 


ing  in  such  rapid  succession  as  to  be  distinguished  with 
difficulty. 

102.    The  canter,  a  slow,  collected  gallop  which  the  horse 
is  made  to  do  under  restraint,  the  weight  being  sustained 


FIG.  46.  —  The  canter,  the  hind  foot  bearing  the  weight  and  beginning 
a  new  series  of  three  beats  at  the  phase  of  contact,  after  the  horse 
has  been  projected  clear  of  the  ground  by  the  independent  forefoot. 

chiefly  by  the  hind  quarters,  while  the  lightened  forehand 
rises  and  falls  in  a  high  bounding  fashion  (Fig.  46). 
Inasmuch  as  the  canter,  like  the  gallop,  causes  special 
wear1  on  the  leading  forefoot,  and  its  diagonal  hind  foot, 


106 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


the  lead  should  be  changed  frequently,  a  well-schooled 
saddle  horse  cantering  on  either  lead  at  command.  Cross 
cantering  consists  in  so  confusing  the  fore  and  hind  leads 
that  the  simultaneous  beat  is  of  a  lateral  instead  of  a 
diagonal  pair  of  feet,  and  this  beat  falls  between  the  suc- 


Fio.   47.  — The  jump,  in  which  the  forehand  lifts,  the  hindquarters 
propel. 

cessive  beats  of  the  other  lateral  pair,  the  leading  fore  and 
hind  on  the  same  side. 

103.  The  jump,  either  high  or  broad,  is  accomplished 
by  the  forelegs  raising  the  forehand  as  the  horse  takes  off 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  bring  his  body  in  line  with  the 
direction  in  which  the  jump  is  to  be  taken,  when  a  strong 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  107 

propulsive  effort  of  the  hindquarters  projects  it  over  in 
the  case  of  the  high  jump  or  across  in  the  case  of  the  broad 
jump  (Fig.  47).  Upon  alighting  the  forefeet  strike  the 
ground  first,  the  leading  foot  being  a  very  little  in  ad- 
vance, the  horse  immediately  gathering  himself  and  strid- 
ing out  of  the  way  of  the  hind  feet  which  follow  quickly 
and  come  in  contact  with  the  ground  slightly  in  advance  of 
the  prints  of  the  forefeet. 

104.  The  running  walk,  a  slow,  single  foot  or  four-beat 
gait   intermediate  in  both  speed  and  execution  between 
the  walk  and  the  rack,  and  suggestive  of  a  continued  break- 
ing out  of  the  walk.     Whereas  the  rack  is  the  show  gait 
of  the  gaited  saddle  horse,  the  running  walk  is  their 
business  gait.     At  it  horses  make  from  six  to  eight  miles 
an  hour  and  it  can  be  continued  all  day  with  no  distress 
to  either  horse  or  rider. 

105.  The  fox  trot,  a  short,  broken  trot  in  which  the 
hind  legs  go  more  or  less  of  a  pace,  the  horse  usually  mark- 
ing the  beats  with  his  head  and  ears.     It  is  used  in  place 
of  the  running  walk  in  horses  which  take  to  it  more  kindly. 

106.  The    stepping    pace,    a    distinctly    saddle    gait, 
should  be  differentiated  from  the  ordinary  harness  pace 
which  is  a  mark  of  degeneracy  in  the  saddle  horse.     The 
stepping  pace  is  characterized  by  little  if  any  side  motion 
and  a  somewhat   broken  cadence   in   the  action  of  the 
lateral  pairs  of  legs. 

107.  The  traverse,  a  side  step,  executed  by  both  fore- 
hand and  hindquarters,  in  response  to  rein  on  the  neck 
and  heel  in  the  flank  ;  by  it  horses  may  be  brought  up  to  a 
gate  to  unlatch  it  or  to  "  dress  "  in  troop  maneuvers. 

108.  Factors  influencing  the  horse's  way  of  going.  — 
The  particular  features  or  deviations  in  a  horse's  way  of 
going  may  be  due  to  either  of  two  sets  of  factors,  natural 


108  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

and  acquired.  The  former  class  include  type,  conforma- 
tion, direction  of  leg  and  form  of  foot,  all  of  which  are 
governed  by  breeding ;  the  latter  embraces  educational 
tactics,  mechanical  appliances,  and  the  going  surface, 
which  are  encountered  in  the  horse's  schooling  and  han- 
dling. 

109.  Type  as  a  factor.  —  Type  involves  structure  and 
structure  is  correlated  with  function,  therefore   a  horse 
will  do  as  he  is.     His  capacity  for  one  sort  of  performance 
will  be  limited,  for  another  enhanced,  by  the  plan  of  his 
structure ;    a  long,  lithe,  angular  horse  will  have  more 
speed  than  power,  while  the  draft  horse  is  short  legged, 
broad,  square  and  compact.     The  stride  of  the  former 
horse  will  be  characterized  by  reach  and  extension,  while 
the  cobby  horse,  for  instance,  has   a  short  but  trappy 
stride. 

110.  Conformation  as  a  factor.  —  Conformation,  involv- 
ing the  details  rather  than  the  plan  of  structure,  also  in- 
fluences the  horse's  way  of  going.     The  jumper  has  a 
straight  hind  leg  short  from  the  hip  to  the  hock,  while 
the  pacer  has  a  bent  hind  leg,  long  from  the  hip  to  the 
hock. 

Direction  of  leg  and  form  of  foot  control  the  directness 
of  the  stride,  the  former  determining  the  course  that  will 
be  taken  by  the  foot  during  its  stride,  whether  it  will 
be  advanced  in  a  straight  line  or  describe  the  arc  of  a 
circle  inward  or  outward,  while  the  latter  fixes  the  point 
at  which  the  foot  breaks  over,  whether  the  center  of  the 
toe,  the  outer  or  the  inner  quarter,  depending  upon  whether 
or  not  the  foot  is  symmetrical  or  the  inner  or  outer  quarter 
is  higher. 

The  common  deviations  in  the  direction  of  the  leg  are 
classified  as  follows : 


THE  INDIVIDUAL 


109 


Deviations 
in  the 
Direction 
of  the 
Legs  of 
the  Horse 


Fore  legs 


Viewed  from 
ia  front 


Viewed  from 
the  side 


f  Knees  too  close  —  knock 

kneed. 
Knees  too  wide  apart  — 

bow  kneed. 
Fetlocks  close,  toes  wide 

—  splay  footed. 
Toes  narrow  —    pigeon 

toed. 
Standing    over    at    the 

knees  —  knee    sprung 

or  buck  kneed. 
Standing    back    at    the 

knees  —  calf  kneed. 
Forefeet     too     far    ad- 
vanced —  camped. 
Forefeet  too  far  back  — 

standing  under. 
Steep  pasterns. 
Weak  pasterns. 
Hocks  too  wide  apart  — 

bandy  legged. 
Hocks  too  close  together 

—  cow  hocked. 
Fetlocks  close,  toes  wide. 
Toes  narrow. 

Hock  bent  or  acute 
angled,  the  point  of 
the  hock  usually  being 
too  far  back  —  sickle 
or  saber  hocked. 

Hock  straight  or  open 
angled. 

Steep  pasterns. 

Weak  pasterns. 


111.  Breeding  as  a  factor.  —  The  features  of  type  and 
conformation  which  determine  the  horse's  way  of  going 
are,  in  turn,  matters  of  breeding  which,  in  addition,  is 
responsible  for  the  mental  factor  which  governs  locomotion 


Hind  legs 


Viewed  from 
the  rear 


Viewed  from 
the  side 


110  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

and  is  expressed  by  instinct.  Instinct,  type  and  confor- 
mation are  usually  correlated  and  not  antagonistic.  In- 
stinct, however,  has  a  broader  application  in  determining 
the  specific  gait  that  a  horse  shall  go,  rather  than  influenc- 
ing some  particular  feature  of  his  stride.  It  is  instinctively 
natural  for  trotting  bred  horses  to  trot,  Hackneys  to  go 
high  and  Thoroughbreds  to  gallop. 

112.  Education.  —  Instinct,  however,  is  not  sufficient 
to  account  for  the  record  attainments  in  the  various  gaits 
of  some  horses.     Education  is  necessary  in  order  to  make 
the  most  of  hereditary  endowments.     Given  the  natural 
aptitude  to  trot,  step  high  or  gallop,  a  system  of  schooling 
is  employed  for  the  perfection  of  these  gaits. 

113.  Mechanical  appliances.  —  It  is  in  the  schooling 
of  horses  that  the  mechanical  factors  influencing  the  way 
of  going  are  resorted  to.     For  instance,  the  snaffle  bit, 
offering  no  opposition  to  the  horse  extending  himself, 
is  conducive  to  speed,  and  is  therefore  regularly  used  on 
race  horses,  while  the  curb  bit,  resulting  as  it  does  in 
restraint,   is  suggestive  of  a  collected  and  high  way  of 
going,  and  is  therefore  of  great  assistance  in  the  schooling 
of  saddle  and  high-going  horses. 

Weight  influences  the  stride  within  limits ;  increasing 
the  amount  of  weight  in  the  foot,  either  by  the  shoe  or  by 
permitting  an  overgrowth  of  the  foot  itself,  calls  for  an 
extra  effort  to  make  the  stride,  and  therefore  results  in  a 
higher  step,  although  excessive  weight  will  defeat  this 
purpose.  The  placing  of  weight  in  the  different  parts  of 
the  foot,  as  inside,  outside,  heel  or  toe,  does  not  make  as 
much  difference  as  was  formerly  believed.  However, 
weight  at  the  toe  in  the  position  of  the  usual  toe  weight 
attachments  will,  upon  the  principle  of  the  pendulum,  in- 
crease the  length  of  the  stride  by  carrying  the  foot  out, 


THE  INDIVIDUAL  111 

even  turning  up  the  toe,  in  extreme  cases,  while  weight 
at  the  heel  increases  the  height  of  the  stride  by  requiring 
more  lift  on  the  part  of  the  flexors.  Hopples  may  be 
used  to  keep  trotters  or  pacers  in  their  stride  or  to  con- 
vert from  one  gait  to  the  other. 

114.  Going  surface.  —  The  surface  over  which  the  horse 
steps  has  a  marked  influence  on  the  character  of  his  stride 
which  may  be  taken  advantage  of  in  the  schooling  process. 
As  a  general  rule,  heavy,  soft  or  deep  going  causes  a  high 
stride,  while  a  hard,  smooth  surface  is  conducive  to  speed. 
Of  the  speed  horses,  trotters  and  pacers  take  more  kindly 
to  the  hard  track  than  the  runners,  which  do  best  on  the 
turf  or  a  deeply  scratched  dirt  track.     The  difference  in 
the  going  will  frequently  account  for  a  horse's  trotting 
or  pacing,  the  heavy  or  deep  going  causing  double-gaited 
horses  to  trot,  while  a  change  in  footing  will  shift  them  to 
the  pace. 

The  common  defects  and  peculiarities  in  the  horse's  way 
of  going  for  which  any  of  the  preceding  factors  may  be 
responsible  or  tend  to  overcome  are  : 

115.  Forging  —  striking  the  ends  of  the  branches  or  the 
under  surface  of  the  shoe  of  a  forefoot  with  the  toe  of  the 
hind  foot. 

116.  Interfering  —  striking   the  supporting  leg   at   the 
fetlock  with  the  foot  of  the  striding  leg.     It  is  a  common 
result  of  the  horse's  standing  in  the  base  narrow,  toe  wide 
or  splay  footed  position. 

117.  Paddling  —  an  outward  deviation  in  the  direction 
of  the  stride  of  the  foreleg  resulting  from  the  toe  narrow 
or  pigeon  toed  standing  position. 

118.  Winging  —  exaggerated  paddling  in  horses  that  go 
high,  and  consequently  deviate  more  noticeably. 

119.  Winding  —  a  twisting  of  the  striding  leg,  around 


112  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

in  front  of  the  supporting  leg  after  the  manner  of  a  rope 
walker ;  most  commonly  seen  at  the  walk  in  wide-fronted 
draft  horses. 

120.  Scalping  —  hitting   the   front   of    the    hind   foot 
above  or  at  the  line  of  the  hair  against  the  toe  of  the  fore- 
foot as  it  breaks  over. 

121.  Speedy  cutting  —  in  which  the  spreading  trotter  at 
speed  hits  the  hind  leg  above  the  scalping  mark  against 
the  inside  of  the  breaking  over  forefoot  as  he  passes. 

122.  Cross   firing  —  essentially   forging    in   pacers,   in 
which  the  inside  of  the  near  fore  and  off  hind  foot,  or  the 
reverse,  strike  in  the  air,  as  the  stride  of  the  hind  leg  is 
about  completed  and  the  stride  of  the  foreleg  just  begun. 

123.  Pointing  —  a  stride  in  which   extension  is  more 
marked  than  flexion,  as  is  commonly  seen  in  the  trot  of  a 
Thoroughbred.     Pointing  also  indicates  the  resting  of  one 
forefoot    in    an    advanced    position   to   relieve  the  back 
tendons  while  the  horse  is  standing. 

124.  Dwelling  —  a  scarcely  perceptible  pause  in   the 
flight  of  the  foot  as  though  the  stride  had  been  completed 
before  the  foot  reaches  the   ground,   and   noticeable  in 
actors. 

126.    Trappy  —  a  quick,  high  but  comparatively  short 
stride. 

126.  Pounding  —  hitting  the  ground  hard  at  the  con- 
clusion of  a  high  stride. 

127.  Rolling  —  excessive  side  motion  of  the  shoulders, 
usually  confined  to  wide-fronted  horses. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE   TYPES  AND  CLASSES 

THERE  are  four  types  of  horses,  the  division  being  made 
upon  the  basis  of  mechanics,  each  type  being  subdivided 
into  classes  in  accordance  with  market  and  show  ring  de- 
mands. The  four  types  are  power,  speed,  show  and 
saddle. 

128.  The  power  type.  —  The  service  of  the  power  or 
draft  horse  is  to  move  the  maximum  load  under  minimum 
pace  requirements  and  usually  over  the  paved  surfaces 
of  traffic  congested  city  streets. 

Stability  of  equilibrium  is  the  measure  of  power ;  there- 
fore, the  essential  features  of  power  horse  type  are  those 
which  contribute  to  or  insure  stability  of  equilibrium  and 
muscular  development.  Factors  to  the  former  are 
weight,  low  station  and  breadth  of  body;  to  the  latter, 
compactness,  massiveness  and  bone,  while  depth,  which 
is  correlated  with  breadth  and  compactness,  is  a  feature 
of  stamina  by  which  continuous  service  is  sustained. 
The  power  horse  (Fig.  48)  should  weigh  from  1500  to 
2400  pounds  in  order  to  have  sufficient  friction  be- 
tween his  shoe  and  the  hard  surface  of  the  street  to 
give  him  a  secure  footing.  Furthermore,  weight  thrown 
into  the  collar  effectively  supplements  muscular  exertion. 
Low  station,  determined  by  shortness  of  legs,  increases 
the  stability  of  equilibrium  by  bringing  the  center  of 
gravity  as  near  as  possible  to  the  base  of  support,  that 
i  113 


114  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

area  of  surface  upon  which  the  horse  stands,  included 
within  lines  connecting  the  four  points  of  contact,  his 
feet..  Length  of  leg  in  turn  is  largely  a  matter  of  length 
of  cannon,  and  a  short  cannon  is  correlated  with  breadth, 
depth  and  compactness,  all  features  of  the  power  type. 


FIG.  48.  —  The  power  horse  type. 

Breadth,  involving  primarily  the  skeleton,  increases  the 
base  of  support  laterally,  thereby  giving  greater  stability 
of  balance,  and  it  also  insures  skeletal  foundation  for 
the  development  of  a  greater  muscular  system.  Depth, 
directly  related  to  heart,  lung  and  digestive  capacity,  is 
essential  in  order  that  the  horse  shall  be  capable  of  main- 
taining a  continuous  supply  of  energy  throughout  his 


THE  TYPES  AND   CLASSES 


115 


long  hours  of  arduous  duty. 
Compactness,  the  result  of  a 
short  vertebral  column,  brings 
the  source  of  power,  the  hind- 
quarter,  closer  to  the  point  at 
which  the  power  is  applied, 
the  shoulder,  thereby  mak- 
ing for  strength  and  rigidity 
of  the  shaft  and  minimizing 
loss  in  transmission.  Massive 
in  almost  synonymous  with 
muscular,  and  a  massive  ap- 
pearance is  suggestive  of 
power,  as  it  indicates  extreme 
development  of  the  short, 
thick,  bulky  power  variety  of 
muscles.  The  strength  of  the 
bone  should  correspond  to 
the  contracting  force  of  the 
muscle.  The  power  horse 
should,  therefore,  have  a 
framework  of  heavy  but  dense, 
clean  bone  (Fig.  49).  The 
joint  surfaces,  also,  should  be 
of  such  area  as  to  withstand 
the  stress  of  the  powerful  con- 
traction of  the  muscles  upon 
the  bones  whose  ends  they 
oppose.  Furthermore,  the 
symmetrical  appearance  of  FIG.  49.  —  Frontal  section  of 

large  metatarsal    (hind   can- 
non) bone  of  horse,  posterior 

part.  S.c.,  compact  substance;  S.s.,  spongy  substance;  C.m.,  medullary 
cavity;  F.n.,  nutrient  foramen.  Note  the  greater  thickness  of  the  com- 
pact substance  of  the  inner  and  anterior  parts  of  the  shaft. 


116 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


the  power  horse  requires  that  his  underpinning  (Fig.  50) 
shall  balance  with  the  size  of  his  superstructure. 


129.  Conformation  of  the  draft  horse.  —  The  distinctive 
features  of  the  conformation  of  the  draft  horse  are:  a 
head  of  such  size  as  will  balance  the  other  features  of  a 


THE  TYPES  AND   CLASSES  117 

big  horse,  yet  not  manifest  coarseness  or  low  breeding; 
a  neck  that  has  sufficient  length  and  shape  to  fit  a  collar 
well,  though  strong  and  muscular ;  broad,  muscular 
withers ;  a  shoulder  with  as  much  length  and  slope  as  is 
consistent  with  a  short-legged,  heavy-set  horse ;  a  broad 
muscular  arm  and  fore  arm ;  a  wide,  deep  knee  affording 
ample  joint  surface,  the  size  of  the  horse  considered ;  a 
short,  broad,  flat,  clean  cannon  bone ;  a  pastern  of  as  much 
length  and  slope  as  will  support  the  weight  of  a  draft  horse 
without  sagging;  a  full,  round,  smooth  coronet,  elastic 
cartilages;  and  a  foot  that  is  large  in  proportion  to  the 
size  of  the  horse,  of  half-flat  shape,  so  as  to  insure  greatest 
circumference  and  ground-gripping  surface,  yet  strong  in 
the  heels  and  bars,  with  an  arched  sole  which  shows  no 
tendency  to  drop  or  become  too  flat,  as  many  draft  horse  feet 
do,  and  of  such  dense,  smooth  horn  as  will  insure  against 
the  shelly,  brittle  hoofs  to  which  draft  horses  are  heir ;  a 
short,  broad,  straight  back ;  round,  deep  rib  ;  short,  broad, 
thick,  level  loin ;  full  flank  ;  smooth,  short,  strong  coupling ; 
long,  level,  broad  and  muscular  croup;  thick  thigh  and 
stifle ;  muscular  gaskin ;  broad,  deep,  smooth,  straight, 
clean-cut  hock ;  with  the  same  sort  of  hind  cannon,  pastern 
and  foot  as  described  for  the  front  leg,  the  hind  pasterns 
of  draft  horses  showing  a  marked  tendency  to  be  steep. 

The  legs  should  be  set  one  under  each  corner,  not  on 
each  corner,  giving  the  bull  dog  effect  that  is  noticeable  in 
some  very  wide-fronted  horses.  The  elbow  should  be  in, 
not  out.  The  hocks  cannot  be  expected  to  be  very  close 
together  in  a  horse  that  has  much  thickness  of  thigh,  but 
hocks  that  are  wide  apart  are  defective.  The  four  legs 
should  line  up  straight  from  either  side  or  end  view. 

130.  Quality  in  the  draft  horse.  —  While  not  contribut- 
ing to  power,  it  is  essential  that  the  draft  horse  should 


118  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

possess  quality,  as  indicated  in  texture  of  bone,  hoof  and 
hair,  and  refinement  of  head  and  neck,  in  order  to  increase 
the  wearing  properties  and  to  improve  the  general  appear- 
ance. Quality  is  not  natural  to  the  draft  horse,  since  he 
is  primarily  gross,  but  as  much  as  is  consistent  with  the 
required  substance  should  be  sought. 

131.  Temperament  of  the  draft  horse.  —  The  nature  of 
the  work  of  the  draft  horse  requires  that  he  be  steady  and 
easily  handled,  hence  his  lymphatic  temperament  stands 
him  in  good  stead,  unless  it  makes  him  absolutely  sluggish, 
which  he  should  not  be. 

132.  Way  of  going  of  the  draft  horse.  —  Since  the  most 
approved  systems  of  draft  horse  management  prescribe 
that  he  shall  work  at  the  walk,  it  is  important  that  the  walk, 
in  his  case,  should  be  developed  to  its  greatest  possibilities. 
He  should  move  at  this  gait  with  a  powerful,  yet  snappy, 
free  and  true  stride.     He  may  be  trotted  for  inspection,  be- 
cause the  trot  magnifies  all  features  of  the  walk,  and  for  a 
draft  horse  to  be  able  to  trot  well  gives  assurance  of 
mechanical  excellence  which  will  serve  him  equally  well 
at  the  walk. 

133.  The  speed  type  (Fig.  51).  —  This  type  is  extremely 
opposed  to  the  horse  that  has  already  been  described .     Speed 
performance  calls  for  maximum  pace  with  a  minimum 
impost  of  weight  to  be  pulled  or  carried.     Instability  of 
equilibrium  is  the  measure  of  speed ;   therefore,  the  type 
in  general  is  one  in  which  there  is  the  least  opposition  to 
the  rapid   and  repeated  displacement  of  the  center  of 
gravity  which  takes  place  with  each  stride  and  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  leading  foot.     In  addition  to  the  rapidity  with 
which  successive  strides  can  be  taken,  the  length  of  the  indi- 
vidual strides  determines  the  speed.     Muscular  contraction, 
therefore,  must  be  greatest  in  degree  as  well  as  most  quickly 


THE  TYPES  AND   CLASSES  119 

accomplished,  and  the  sort  of  muscles  that  are  capable  of 
such  contraction  are  long,  narrow  and  bandlike  compared 
to  the  short,  thick  muscles  of  power.  Instability  of 
equilibrium  as  well  as  length  of  stride  are  favored  in  the 
horse  that  is  long  and  rangy  in  order  to  have  length  in  his 


FIG.  51.  —  The  speed  horse  type. 

stride  ;  lithe  as  the  result  of  his  muscular  system  consisting 
of  muscles  of  the  speed  sort ;  angular  for  the  same  reason, 
his  form  not  being  rounded  out  by  the  bulk  of  his  muscles, 
nor  by  excess  weight  in  fat ;  narrow  to  permit  of  the 
greatest  directness  of  shoulder  motion,  as  a  narrow  base  of 
support  is  in  line  with  a  rapid  displacement  of  the  center  of 


120  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

gravity,  and  to  minimize  wind  resistance ;  deep  to  secure 
the  heart,  lung  and  digestive  capacity  which  his  perform- 
ance necessitates,  and  yet  which  cannot  be  had  by  width. 

134.  Conformation  of  the  speed  horse.  —  The  special 
features  of  speed  conformation  are  enumerated  in  differen- 
tiating trotters,  pacers  and  runners.     (Paragraph  137.) 

135.  Quality    in    the    speed    horse.  —  Quality    in    the 
speed  type  is  not  only  indicative  of  the  structure's  capacity 
to  withstand  wear  and  tear,  but  insures  durability  with 
least  weight  and  bulk. 

136.  Temperament  of  the   speed  horse.  —  A  nervous 
temperament  is  requisite   to  speed  performance  afford- 
ing the  nerve  force  and  courage  that  is  required  to  control 
and  sustain  the  performance  of  which  the  speed  horse  is 
mechanically  capable. 

137.  Way  of  going  of  the    speed   horse.  —  Horses   of 
the  speed  type  may  be  either  trotters,  pacers  or  runners. 

Trotters  and  pacers,  both  going  two  beat  gaits  in  harness, 
have  much  in  common  to  distinguish  them  from  runners, 
which  attain  speed  under  saddle  at  an  altogether  different 
gait,  yet  in  some  features,  trotters  and  pacers  them- 
selves are  quite  different.  As  a  group  they  are  distin- 
guished from  the  runner  by  a  greater  proportionate  length 
of  forearm  and  lower  thigh,  a  different  set  to  the  hind  leg, 
there  being  a  greater  tendency  to  a  downward  and 
forward  deviation  in  trotters  and  pacers  and  less  develop- 
ment of  the  forehand.  Of  the  two,  the  pacer  has  greater 
length  of  leg  in  proportion  to  the  body,  a  longer,  steeper 
croup  and  more  bent  hocks.  The  runner  is  characterized 
.by  greater  development  of  the  forehand,  a  much  straighter 
hind  leg  with  less  proportionate  length  from  the  hip  joint 
to  the  hock,  a  somewhat  thicker  stifle  and  a  way  of  standing 
easy  on  his  front  legs. 


THE  TYPES  AND   CLASSES 


121 


138.  The  show  type  (Fig.  52).  —  So  far  as  speed  and 
power  are  concerned,  show  horse  requirements  are  inter- 
mediate. It  is  the  manner  in  which  he  moves  and  the 


FIG.  52.  —  The  show  horse  type. 

appearance  he  makes  while  going  rather  than  the  pace  or 
the  weight  of  the  load  which  counts. 

These  features  are  best  obtained  in  a  horse  of  a  close  and 
full-made  form  viewed  from  the  side  and  end,  respectively, 
because  such  a  one  possesses  the  rotundity  and  smoothness 


122  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

that  fits  heavy  harness  best  and  conforms  to  the  lines  of 
the  heavy  vehicles  to  which  the  show  horse  is  put. 

139.  Conformation  of  the  show  horse.  —  His  conforma- 
tion is  distinctive.     In  no  type  do  good  looks  count  more, 
and  beauty  of  form  involves  conformation.     Furthermore, 
certain    structural    features    not    only    enhance   general 
appearance,  but  are  essential  to  the  kind  of  performance 
required  of  the  show  horse.     The  head  should  be  fine, 
especially  about  the  ears,  and  so  put  on  such  a  shapely 
neck  as  to  permit  of  extreme  flexion  at  this  point,  such  as 
takes  place  when  the  horse  places  himself  when  going. 
Length,  as  well  as  shape  of  neck  is  essential  to  suppleness, 
the  show  horse  being  compelled  to  bend  himself  readily  in 
every  joint.     On  account  of  the  full-made  form  the  withers 
will  not  be  set  up  to  the  same  extent  as  in  the  saddle  horse, 
but  a  long,  sloping  shoulder  and  a  comparatively  light 
forehand  are  requisite  to  action.     In  the  same  way  long, 
sloping  pasterns  contribute  to  height  and  elasticity  of 
stride.     A  high-set  tail  is  effective  in  setting  off  a  high 
stepper's  performance,  and  it  can  only  be  had  on  a  long, 
level,  smoothly  turned  croup. 

140.  Quality,   temperament  and  way  of  going  of  the 
show  type.  —  Quality  in  the  extreme   as   an  important 
adjunct  to  finish  and  good  looks,  and  a  temperament  that 
is  proud,  bold  and  stylish  in  order  that  his  performance 
may  be  in  line  with  his  physical  features  and  the  purpose 
to  which  he  is  put  are  important. 

141.  The  saddle  type.  — The  saddle  horse  (Fig.  53)  not 
only  has  to  carry  weight  of  from  135  to  200  pounds  or  over, 
but  he  is  required  to  do  it  in  such  a  manner  as  to  afford 
satisfaction  to  his  rider  and  incur  no  distress  to  himself. 
The  various  gaits  at  which  the  weight  is  carried  serve  to  dif- 
ferentiate the  classes  of  saddle  horses.     Ability  to  support 


THE  TYPES  AND   CLASSES 


123 


weight  depends  upon  a  short-span  arch,  represented  in  a 
short,  closely  coupled  back  and  loin,  resting  upon  strong 
columns — short,  stout  legs.  To  carry  the  weight,  the  horse 


FIG.  53.  —  The  saddle  horse  type. 

is  required  to  move  in  balance,  collecting  himself  under 
his  load,  going  well  off  his  hocks  and  keeping  his  legs 
under  him  as  much  as  possible  in  order  to  be  supporting 
the  weight  at  all  phases  of  the  stride.  The  big  horse  is 
not  necessarily  the  weight  carrier ;  unless  he  is  properly  set 
up,  his  own  size  may  be  an  encumbrance  to  him,  while 
many  ponies,  by  virtue  of  their  distinctly  weight-carrying 
build,  are  capable  of  much  more  than  would  be  expected 
of  them. 


124  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

142.  Conformation     of    the     saddle     horse.  —  Special 
conformation  requirements  of  the  saddle  type  are  a  saddle 
back,  short,  straight  and  strong ;  a  light  forehand  insuring 
handiness  in  carrying  weight,  a  heavily  fronted  horse  not 
only  giving  a  rough  ride  but  being  a  blunderer,  as  a  rule  ;  a 
long,  sloping  shoulder,  longer  than  in  any  other  type  of  horse, 
to  give  a  free,  springy  stride ;  and  high  withers,  extend- 
ing well  back,  the  result  of  the  long,  sloping  shoulders  and 
serving  to  keep  both  saddle  and  rider  from  working  for- 
ward, giving  the  impression  of  much  horse  in  front  of  the 
rider,  forming  the  narrow  front  which  affords  the  most 
secure  seat  by  favoring  thigh  and  knee  grip    and    ob- 
viating the  difficulty  of  a  wide  spread  of  legs,  and  prevent- 
ing the  turning  of  the  saddle.     Such  shoulders  and  withers 
are  correlated  with  the  long,  supple  neck  so  essential  in 
the  saddle  horse. 

143.  Quality  of  the  saddle  horse.  —  Quality,  combined 
with  substance,  is  desired  in  the  saddle  horse,  quality 
being  especially  required  of  the  park  saddle  classes,  while 
substance    is    necessary    for    carrying   weight.      Quality 
is    characteristic    of    the    blood    lines    in    which    most 
saddle  hofses  are  bred ;   substance  is  therefore  most  apt 
to  be  deficient. 

144.  Way  of  going  of  the  saddle  horse.  —  The  stride  of 
the  saddle  horse  is  distinguished  by  elasticity,  especially, 
and  the' safety  of  the  rider  demands  that  he  be  sure-footed. 

146.  Intelligence  of  the  saddle  horse. . —  A  well- 
schooled  saddle  horse  should  be  thoroughly  responsive 
to  the  hand  of  the  rider  on  his  mouth,  the  rein  on  his  neck 
and  the  heel  on  his  side  ;  he  should  change  gaits,  canter  on 
either  lead,  or  in  a  circle,  back  and  traverse  at  command, 
all  of  which  requires  a  responsive  mouth  and  intelligence  of 
a  high  order. 


THE   TYPES  AND   CLASSES  125 

MARKET   AND   SHOW   CLASSES   OF   HORSES 


(A.    Drafter 

I.   Work  Horse  Division       -;     '    ~?gge,r 
C.    Chunk  , 

[  D.    Feeder 

-~-Expresser 
,  f -A.   Coach  Horse-" 
II.   Heavy  Harness  Division  >,  B.    Park  Horse  , 

!  c.  cob 

:>  Runabout 


(A.  Roadster- -- 

III.  Light  Harness  Division     -j  _  ,  (  Trotter 

(B-  Speed[  Pacer 

f  A.  Race  Horse  (Runner) 

|  B.  Gaited 

IV.  Saddle  Division  -I  C.  Walk-trot-canter 

-j  D.  Hunter 

(  E.  Combination 

[  A.  Under  46  inches  (Shetland) 

V.   Pony  Division  <  B.  11-2  to  14-2 

I  C.  Polo  Pony 


WORK  HORSE  DIVISION 

The  work  horse  division  includes  drafters,  loggers,  chunks 
and  expressers. 

146.  The  drafter.  —  The  truest  exponent  of  the  power 
type  already  described.  There  is  some  distinction  to  be 
made,  however,  between  the  market  draft  gelding  (Fig.  54) 
and  the  extreme  of  the  power  type.  In  considering  the 
essential  features  of  power,  height  is  of  much  less  importance 
than  weight  and  station,  but  in  the  selection  of  draft  geld- 
ings height  is  more  important.  The  draft  horse  market  is 
ruled  by  buyers  who  make  the  appearance  of  their  teams 


126 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


on  the  city  streets  a  feature  of  their  advertising  policy, 
and  in  establishing  the  top  of  the  market  for  draft  horses 
they  have  more  in  view  than  simply  horse  power.  Al- 


FIG.  54.  —  A  pair  of  heavy  draft  geldings. 

though  somewhat  contrary  to  power,  the  object  of  appear- 
ance is  better  served  by  horses  which  have  more  stature 
than  the  strict  power  type  permits  of.  Otherwise,  when 


THE  TYPES  AND  CLASSES 


127 


128 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


put  to  the  large  trucks  and  vans,  the  low-down  horse  will 
appear  squatty,  and  the  effect  of  the  entire  equipage  will 
be  marred.  Drafters  are  worked  singly,  in  pairs,  threes, 
fours  and  sixes. 

147.  The  logger.  —  Briefly,  a  draft  horse  minus  quality, 
being  coarse,  unsymmetrical,  low  bred  or  badly  enough 
blemished  to  be  disqualified  for  the  city  trade,  and  taken 
for  service  in  the  woods  where  power  only  counts. 

148.  The   chunk.  —  A  drafter  minus  scale,  being  the 
extreme  of  draft  form  as  indicated  by  his  name,  but  under 
weight,  usually  ranging  from  1200  to  1500  pounds  (Fig.  55). 
He  is  handier  for  the  rough  work  of  farmers  and  contractors 
and  the  more  rapid  hauling  that  is  required  in  the  delivery 
service  of  breweries  and  such  concerns  than  the  typical 
drafter. 

149.  The  expresser.  —  A  rapid  draft  horse,  capable  of 


FIG.  56.  —  A  pair  of  expressers. 


THE  TYPES  AND   CLASSES  129 

doing  his  work  at  the  trot.  He  is  on  the  line  between  the 
work  horse  and  the  heavy  harness  horse  divisions  so  far 
as  his  makeup  is  concerned,  embracing  some  of  the  size 
and  substance  of  the  draft  horse  with  more  of  the  shape 
and  finish  of  the  heavy  harness  horse  (Fig.  56) .  Expressers 
vary  in  weight  from  1250  to  1500  pounds  and  are  some- 
times subclassified  into  light  and  heavy  delivery. 

160.  The  feeder.  —  Any  thin  horse  bought  for  the 
purpose  of  fattening  may  be  properly  termed  a  feeder, 
but  as  this  practice  is  limited  to  horses  in  the  work  division, 
the  typical  feeder  belongs  to  the  draft  class  or  one  of  its 
subclasses. 

HEAVY  HARNESS  DIVISION 

These  horses  conform- to  the  show  type  and  include  the 
coach  horse,  the  park  horse,  the  cob  and  the  runabout 
horse. 

151.  The  coach  horse.  —  A  horse  of  sufficient  size  and 
substance  to  pull  a  brougham  or  road  coach  (Fig.  57),  yet 
possessing  enough  quality,  style  and  action  to  make  a 
good  appearance.     Twelve  hundred  pounds  weight,  sixteen 
hands  height,  is  standard  size.     They  are  required  to  make 
a  good  show  while  going  about  an  eight-mile  pace,  and 
be  well  enough  mannered  to  go  anywhere  through  city 
traffic  or  stand    in  pose   for  long  waits.     Coach  horses 
are    put    to    the     brougham,    laudau    or,    as    wheelers 
especially,  to  the  park  drag  or  road  coach,  singly,  in  pairs, 
unicorn  (three),  four,  or  five  when  cock  horse  is  used. 

152.  The  park  horse  is  the  most  typical  representative 
of  the  show  type.     He  should  be  able  to  go,  flashily,  a 
pace  of  twelve  miles  an  hour  with  a  most  extravagant 
flexion  of  knees  and  hocks.     Park  horses  are  driven  singly, 
in  pairs  and  fours,  put  to  the  gig,  the  Sayler  wagon,  demi- 


130 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


THE   TYPES   AND    CLASSES 


131 


132  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

mail,  Stanhope,  spider  or  George  IV  phaeton  (Fig.  58), 
park  drag  and  Victoria,  owners  to  drive,  usually,  in  all 
but  the  last  instance.  They  are  classified  by  height. 

153.  The  cob  is  best  described  as  a  big,  little,  ride  or 
drive,  horse.     He   exemplifies  the   close,  full-made  form 
and  high  action  of  the  show  type,  but  has  unusual  bone 
and  muscular  development  in  his   comparatively  short 
legs.     The  typical  cob  is  so  extremely  close  and  full  made 
that  the  term  cobby  is  used  to  denote  such  a  form.     The 
cob  is  intermediate  between  the  heavy  harness  and  pony 
divisions. 

154.  The  runabout  horse.  —  The  nature  of  his  service 
is  indicated  by  the  name  of  the  vehicle  to  which  he  is 
put,  and  handiness  is  his  most  essential  feature.     To  this 
end  he  should  be  small,  not  over  15  hands  1  inch,  as  a  rule, 
and  combine  some  of  the  step  of  the  road  horse  with  some 
of  the  shape  and  action  of  the  park  horse,  although  extreme 
action  is  not  typical  of  this  class.     Runabout  horses  should 
stand  without  hitching,  back  readily,  and  display  the  best 
of  manners  at  all  times    (Fig.  59).     This  horse  may  be 
considered  intermediate  between  the  heavy  harness  and 
the  light  harness  divisions. 

LIGHT  HARNESS  DIVISION 

This  division  consists  of  roadsters  and  speed  horses,  the 
latter  of  which  may  be  either  trotters  or  pacers. 

156.  The  roadster  (Fig.  60)  typifies  the  trotter  described 
under  the  speed  type,  but  is  required,  in  addition,  to  be  of 
good  size  and  conformation  and  to  have  some  style,  a  smooth 
gait,  even  though  not  possessed  of  extreme  speed,  and  the 
best  of  manners.  Pacers  are  not  generally  recognized  in 
road  classes  on  account  of  the  fact  that  they  pull  a  wagon 
unsteadily  over  any  but  the  best  of  going,  their  side  motion 


THE  TYPES  AND   CLASSES 


133 


134 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


THE  TYPES  AND  CLASSES  135 

is   considered  unsightly,   and  they  are  too  susceptible, 
in  their  gait,  to  the  various  kinds  of  footing. 

166.  The  speed  horse  may  be  either  a  trotter  or  a  pacer 
possessed  of  sufficient  speed,  stamina  and  gameness,  to 
render  him  a  successful  race  horse.     Unfortunately  speed 
performance  alone  is  about  all  that  counts,  although  the 
better  class  of  speed  horses  conform  very  closely  to  the 
road  horse  just  described,  possessing  extreme  speed  in 
addition. 

Road  horses  are  hitched  singly  or  in  pairs  to  the  Ameri- 
can road  wagon,  while  speed  horses  are  hooked  to  sulkies 
or  speed  wagons,  depending  upon  whether  or  not  amateur 
rales  obtain. 

SADDLE  HORSE  DIVISION 

The  saddle  horse  division  embraces  the  race  horse  or 
runner,  the  gaited  saddle  horse,  the  walk-trot-canter 
saddle  horse,  the  hunter  and  the  combination  horse. 

167.  The  race  horse  is  of  most  extreme  speed  type, 
but  is  used  exclusively  under  saddle.     He  is  a  natural 
galloper,  having  a  wonderful  reach  and  length  of  jump  ati 
the  run,  but  a  low,  pointing  stride  at  the  trot.     Running 
races  are  conducted  on  the  flat  or  over  the  jumps  of  the 
steeple-chase  course,  some  horses  showing  a  natural  apti- 
tude for  the  jumps,  whereas  others  cannot  even  be  schooled 
to  take  them  successfully.     Runners  are  handicapped  by 
the  weight  which  they  are  required  to  carry. 

168.  The  gaited  saddle  horse  (Fig.  61).  —  Since  instinct 
to  go  certain  gaits  is  hereditary,  and  only  those  horses  which 
instinctively  go  certain  gaits  can  be  schooled  to  a  satis- 
factory performance  at  them,  the  majority  of  gaited  saddle 
horses  are  Saddle  bred,  and  conform  to  the  description  of  the 
Saddle-bred   horse   given  elsewhere.     Performance,   the 


136 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


basis  upon  which  they  are  classified,  requires  them  to  go 
at  least  five  gaits,  i.e.  the  walk ;  either  the  running  walk, 


FIG.  61.  —  A  gaitcd  saddle  horse. 

fox  trot  or  stepping  pace ;  the  trot ;  the  rack ;  and  the 
canter.  See  pages  99-107.  They  carry  full  mane  and  tail 
and  represent  the  southern  and  western  idea  of  a  saddle 
horse. 

169.  The  walk-trot-canter  saddle  horse.  —  This  class 
may  be  subdivided  into  the  American  or  Saddle  bred  and 
the  English  or  Thoroughbred  saddle  types  (Fig.  62) .  The 


THE   TYPES  AND   CLASSES 


137 


former  is  distinguished  from  the  gaited  saddle  horse  only 
by  the  fact  that  he  either  has  not  been  schooled  or  is  not 
permitted  to  go  more  than  the  three  gaits  and  is  usually 


FIG.  62.  —  A  walk-trot-canter  maro. 

docked  and  has  his  mane  pulled.  The  Thoroughbred  type 
(Fig.  63),  representing  the  English  idea,  is  a  well-shaped, 
good-headed  Thoroughbred  that  is  not  characterized  by 
the  usual  pointy  trot,  but  can  trot  in  the  collected, 
springy,  weight  carrying  way  that  is  required  of  the 
saddle  horse.  They  are  usually  undocked  but  have  their 
manes  hogged. 


138 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


FIG.  63.  —  The  Thoroughbred  type  of  walk-trot-canter  saddle  horse. 

160.  The  hunter.  —  This  horse  is  required  to  carry 
weight  cross  country  after  fox  hounds,  which  necessitates 
his  jumping  safely  any  obstacle  likely  to  be  encountered 
in  a  cross-country  run,  having  stamina  sufficient  to  stay 
with  the  pack  as  long  as  they  run  and  to  be  able  to 
gallop  fast  enough  to  follow  the  hounds.  He  must 
have  a  good  head  to  keep  a  steady  hunting  clip  and  be  at 
all  times  under  the  complete  control  of  his  rider.  The 
hunter  is  a  weight  carrying  saddle  horse  in  the  extreme 
sense  of  the  term,  having  strong,  well-developed  shoulders 
and  withers,  muscular  quarters  and  ample  bone.  Size 


THE  TYPES  AND  CLASSES 


139 


is  sought  as  being  conducive  to  safety;  the  regulation 
fence  is  lower  for  a  sixteen-hand  horse  than  for  one  of  only 
fifteen  hands'  height ;  furthermore,  in  case  the  horse 
blunders,  the  momentum  of  his  weight  will  allow  him  to 
break  through  the  obstacle,  whereas  the  lighter  horse 


FIG.  64.  —  A  light  weight  hunter. 

would  probably  trip  and  come  down.  Then,  other  things 
being  equal,  the  bigger  horse  is  up  to  more  weight,  and 
many  people  who  ride  to  hounds  are  following  the  sport 
to  keep  down  avoirdupois.  Hunters  are  classified  on 
the  basis  of  weight  to  which  they  are  up,  as  light  weight 
(Fig.  64),  135  to  165  pounds,  middle  weight,  165  pounds  to 


140 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


190  pounds,  and  heavy  weight  (Fig.  65),  190  pounds  or 
over.  They  are  also  classified  as  qualified  or  green,  de- 
pending upon  whether  or  not  they  have  hunted  one  season 
with  a  pack  recognized  by  the  United  Hunts  and  Steeple 
Chase  Association. 


FIG.  65.  —  A  heavy  weight  hunter. 

161.  The  combination  horse.  —  Nearly  all  saddle 
horses  are  broken  to  go  in  harness  and  many  harness 
horses  may  be  ridden,  but  in  either  case  they  do  much 
better  at  the  one  performance  or  the  other.  There 
is,  however,  a  horse  of  which  equally  satisfactory  perform- 
ance is  expected,  whether  under  saddle  or  in  harness,  and 


THE  TYPES  AND   CLASSES  141 

he  is  therefore  termed  a  ride-and-drive  or  combination 
horse.  Although  it  is  customary,  for  convenience'  sake, 
to  show  combination  horses  in  harness  first,  he  is  more  typi- 
cally a  saddle  horse  going  well  in  harness  than  a  harness 
horse  that  is  capable  of  giving  a  good  ride.  The  combina- 
tion horse  is  distinguished  from  the  saddle  horse  proper 
by  being  of  a  somewhat  more  harnessy  form  with  more 
speed  at  the  trot.  Under  saddle  he  may  go  either  three  or 
five  gaits,  the  former  usually  being  shown  in  heavy  harness 
and  the  latter  in  light  harness. 

Classes  for  "  model  "  horses  and  for  "  fine  "  harness 
horses  are  in  the  catalogs  of  most  southern  shows.  They 
both  favor  the  Saddle-bred  horse. 

162.  The  model  horse.  —  These  horses  are  judged  on 
conformation  and  quality  only,  performance  not  being 
considered,  and  classes  for  them  constitute  a  most  effective 
means  of  promoting  uniformity  of  type  and  individual 
excellence. 

.  163.  The  fine  harness  horses  are,  in  a  sense,  model 
horses  in  harness,  the  ideal  being  a  horse  of  extreme  refine- 
ment and  superior  conformation,  having  neither  speed  nor 
great  action  but  going,  most  attractively,  a  ten  or  twelve 
mile  pace. 

PONY  DIVISION 

There  is  an  increasing  tendency,  so  far  as  the  shows  are 
concerned,  to  disregard  any  common  pony  type,  but  to 
differentiate  between  ponies  on  their  conformity  to  either 
harness  or  saddle  standards,  the  same  as  is  done  in  horse 
classes.  In  a  general  way  any  equine  under,  fourteen 
hands  two  inches  is  a  pony,  but  it  is  not  so  at  the  shows. 

The  classifications  usually  call  for  ponies  under  46  inches, 
entries  being  usually,  but  not  necessarily,  of  Shetland 


142 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


breeding  and  type  (Figs.  66  and  67)  ;  ponies  eleven  hands 
two  inches  and  not  exceeding  fourteen  hands  two  inches, 
this  class  being  frequently  subdivided  at  thirteen  hands 


FIG.  66.  —  A  42  inch  harness  pony. 

(Figs.  68  and  69) ;  and  polo  ponies  (Fig.  70) .  There 
are  both  harness  and  saddle  classes  for  ponies  of  each 
of  the  first  two  specifications,  and  the  same  ponies  may 
show,  and  even  win,  in  both,  but  the  line  is  being 
more  sharply  drawn  between  the  harness  and  the  saddle 
pony  types.  The  heavy  harness  standard  is  adhered 
to  in  judging  harness  ponies,  while  in  saddle  classes 
both  miniature  walk-trot-canter  and  hunter  types  are 
considered. 

164.    Ponies   not   exceeding   forty-six  inches.  —  These 
are  children's  ponies  in  every  sense  of   the   word,   dis- 


THE  TYPES  AND   CLASSES 


143 


position  and  manners  being  absolutely  essential  to  quali- 
fication for  this  class.  That  is  one  reason  why  Shetlands 
predominate. 

165.  Ponies  eleven  hands  two  inches,  and  not  exceeding 
fourteen  hands  two  inches.  Ponies  of  this  class  are  re- 
garded as  little  horses  best  adapted  to  the  use  of  youths 


FIG.  67.  —  An  115  hand  saddle  pony. 

and  misses  who  may  have  graduated  from  their  Shetlands. 
They  are  either  miniature  heavy  harness  or  saddle  horses, 
as  noted  above. 


144 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


THE  TYPES  AND   CLASSES 


145 


166.  Pola  ponies.  —  The  polo  pony  usually  stands  close 
to  the  fourteen  hands  two  inch  standard,  is  of  race  horse 
or  hunter  type,  up  to  weight,  handy,  fast  and  clever  in 
order  that  he  may  fully  qualify  for  the  intricate  perform- 
ance incident  to  the  game. 


FIG.  69.  — A  13  hand  saddle  pony. 


146  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


FIG.  70.  —  A  polo  pony. 


CHAPTER  IX 
THE   BREEDS  OF  HORSES 

THE  breeds  of  horses  may  be  classified,  according  to  the 
market  classes,  to  the  types  of  which  their  representations 
conform,  as  follows : 


Draft 


Percheron  f  Hackney 

Belgian          Heavy  Harness  <  French  Coach 


Clydesdale  (  German  Coach 

Shire 
Suffolk 
Light  Harness  —  American  Standardbred 

r  Thoroughbred 
16  I  American  Saddle  Horse 
(  Shetland 
Pony    Welsh 

I  Hackney 

167.  The  Percheron.  — The  typical  Percheron  (Fig.  71) 
is  distinguished  from  the  representatives  of  the  other  draft 
breeds  by  characters  which  can  be  attributed,  primarily, 
to. the  hot  blood  in  the  breed's  foundation  and  to  the  fact 
that  these  horses  were  originally  bred  for  rapid  draft 
service.  Percherons  do  not  possess  the  scale  and  sub- 
stance of  the  Shire,  the  extremely  drafty  form  of  the 
Belgian,  the  broad,  flat,  straight  hocks,  sloping  pasterns 
and  accurate  way  of  going  of  the  Clydesdale,  nor  the  usual 
good  rib  and  the  uniform  coloring  of  the  Suffolk.  They 
147 


148 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


average  of  medium  draft  weight,  stand  over  considerable 
ground  for  a  draft  horse,  have  a  somewhat  toppy  general 
appearance,  and  a  form  that  has  been  most  appropriately 
described  as  of  "a  flowing,  rounded  contour  indicative  of 


FIG.  71.—  A  Percheron  stallion. 

promptitude  of  movement  as  well  as  strength"  l  instead 
of  square  and  blocky.  They  possess  more  general  refine- 
ment, a  better  proportioned  and  more  breedy  head,  and 
better  texture  of  blue  hoof  than  horses  of  any  other  draft 
breed.  They  also  reflect  their  Oriental  ancestry  in  an 

1  Johnstone's  "The  Horse  Book." 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 


149 


active,  somewhat  nervous  temperament  and  go  with 
unusual  snap  and  dash.  Gray  is  the  most  typical  color, 
though  blacks  have  been  most  common,  and  bays,  browns 
and  chestnuts  occur  but  are  not  favored. 

In  brief  the  Percheron  is  a  rapid  draft  horse  of  a  cold  and 
hot  blood  origin  which  has  had  his  weight  brought  up  to 


2.  —  A  Belgian  stallion. 


modern  draft  requirements  by  his  breeders  resorting  to 
stronger  infusions  of  cold  blood,  but  selecting  to  retain  the 
activity  and  refinement  of  the  original  to  as  great  an  ex- 
tent as  the  law  of  correlation  would  permit  of. 

168.    The  Belgian.  —  The  Belgian  (Fig.  72)  is  the  most 
uniformly  low  down  and  wide  out  of  any  of  the  draft  breeds 


150  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

and  is  surpassed  in  weight  only  by  the  Shire.  He  is  ex- 
tremely compactly  put  together  with  square,  massive  ends 
and  a  short,  wide  and  deep  middle,  characters  with  which 
there  are  too  frequently  correlated  a  short,  thick,  heavy- 
crested  neck  and  short,  straight,  stubby  pasterns.  The 
head  is  of  medium  length,  broad  and  deep  and  strong  in 


FIG.  73.  —  A  Clydesdale  stallion. 

the  jowl,  eyes  not  sufficiently  large  or  prominent  and 
ears  set  too  low  sometimes.  His  short  legs  are  heavily 
muscled  in  the  forearm  and  the  gaskin,  although  the  bone 
is  often  not  of  the  best  quality  nor  the  feet  as  large  and 
round  as  the  size  of  the  horse  requires.  Belgians,  while 
essentially  cold  in  their  make-up  are  good  movers,  es- 


THE  BREEDS   OF  HORSES 

pecially  at  the  trot.     Roan,  chestnut,  bay  and  brown  are 
the  prevailing  colors,  although  black  and  gray  occur. 

169.  The  Clydesdale.— The  Clydesdale  (Fig.  73)  is 
distinguished  by  a  mechanical  perfection  in  locomotory 
apparatus  which  is  not  generally  equaled  by  representa- 


FIG.  74.  —  A  Shire  stallion. 

tives  of  other  draft  breeds.  The  set  of  the  legs,  the 
slope  of  the  pasterns,  the  quality  of  the  bone,  combined, 
as  it  is,  with  ample  substance,  and  the  straight,  free, 
springy,  yet  powerful  stride  are  most  characteristic  of  this 
breed.  However,  such  a  stride  is  impossible  in  a  horse  of 


152  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

extreme  draft  form,  consequently  the  typical  Clydesdale 
is  a  more  upstanding  and  correspondingly  longer,  narrower 
and  shallower  bodied  individual  than  the  representatives 
of  the  other  draft  breeds.  This  is  comparatively  speaking, 
however,  as  the  Clydesdale  is  in  every  respect  a  draft  horse, 
and  his  stamp  has  some  things  to  commend  it  over  the 
other  extreme,  which  is  the  only  type  recognized  by  some 
draft  horse  judges.  The  Clydesdale  has  length  of  neck  and 
slope  of  shoulders  which  fit  a  collar  admirably,  and  which 
with  their  long,  level  croup  constitute  two  ends  of  a  very 
good  top  line,  provided  the  back  is  not  too  low,  as  is  some- 
times the  case.  Clydesdale  colors  are  bay  and  brown  most 
commonly  with  a  profusion  of  white  markings ;  black 
and  gray  are  not  rare. 

170.  The  Shire  (Fig.  74).  —  Bulk  and  bone  are  the  two 
features  which  characterize  the  Shire  most.  They  are  the 
result  of  selection  to  the  Englishman's  ideal  of  a  draft  horse, 
backed  up  by  an  environment  in  Lincolnshire  and  Cam- 
bridgeshire, England,  where  they  were  bred,  which  is  most 
conducive  to  just  such  a  structure  as  the  breeders  strive 
to  attain.  His  great  scale  and  substance,  with  his  form, 
are  most  impressive  of  draftiness.  Yet  with  all  there  is  a 
grossness  that  is  suggestive  of  a  low  grade  of  material  in 
his  construction.  The  head  is  large,  especially  long,  with 
the  face  line  inclined  to  be  Roman,  and  the  counte- 
nance expressing  a  sluggish  temperament.  The  hair  coat 
is  luxuriant,  the  mane  and  tail  being  especially  heavy 
and  feather  abundant  with  oftentimes  vestiges  of  the 
mustache  and  tufts  at  knees  and  the  points  of  the  hocks 
by  which  the  old  Flanders  horse  was  characterized. 
There  is  a  wide  range  of  colors  in  the  Shire,  bay,  brown, 
and  black  being  most  common,  gray  and  chestnut  not 
unusual  and  roans  occasional,  all  considerably  marked 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 


153 


with  white.  The  way  of  going  of  a  Shire  is  that  of  a  great 
horse.  He  moves  slowly,  almost  ponderously,  with  a 
lack  of  freedom  in  his  stride,  but  there  is  power  in  the 
movement.  Straight  shoulders  and  pasterns,  flat,  shelly 


FIG.  75.  —A  Suffolk  stallion. 


feet,   a  sluggish  temperament,    and   a  stilty  stride   are 
features  which  Shire  breeders  seek  to  improve. 

171.    The    Suffolk.  —  Having   been   developed    chiefly 


154  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

within  the  confines  of  one  county,  descending  exclusively 
from  an  individual  foundation  sire,  and  having  been  bred 
primarily  for  agricultural  purposes,  this  breed  is  of  excep- 
tionally uniform  type  (Fig.  75) .  The  most  striking  features 
are  the  invariable  chestnut  color  and  the  " punch"  form, 
i.e.  a  low  set,  full,  round,  compact,  massive  body.  They 
have  fairly  fine,  intelligent  heads,  rather  full  crested  necks, 
corresponding  to  their  ample  bodies,  and  clean  legs,  devoid 
of  feather.  All  shades  of  chestnut  are  encountered ; 
flaxen  manes  and  tails  are  not  unusual  but  white  markings 
are. 

Suffolks,  while  they  never  have  been  regarded  as  a  heavy 
draft  breed,  are  quite  frequently  not  up  to  draft  weight. 
The  punch  bodies  and  clean  legs  are  sometimes  overdone, 
giving  the  effect  of  too  fine  bone  under  a  large  superstruc- 
ture. 

172.  The  Hackney.  —  The  antecedents  of  modern 
Hackneys  were  a  race  of  stoutly  made  trotters  possessed 
of  the  stamina  requisite  to  the  performance  of  seventeen 
miles  per  hour,  and  they  were  up  to  any  weight.  They 
represented  a  Thoroughbred  top  cross  on  a  common 
base,  the  trotting  proclivities,  in  this  instance,  being 
alleged  to  come  from  the  Friesland  trotter  blood  in  the 
dams.  This  stock  was  later  made  the  basis  of  selection 
to  harness  requirements,  and  so  faithfully  were  selec- 
tions made  and  requirements  met  that  the  Hackney  is 
to-day  the  heavy  harness  horse  par  excellence.  The  typical 
representative  (Fig.  76)  was  formerly  a  low  set  horse,  very 
close  and  full  made,  and  therefore  weighing  more  than  his 
height  would  indicate.  Greater  favor  is  now  expressed 
for  a  more  upstanding,  finer  individual.  However, 
Hackneys  rarely  exceed  15-3  in  height.  The  form  is 
harnessy  in  the  extreme,  being  especially  rotund,  the  head 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES          155 

well  proportioned,  with  a  straight  face  line,  a  deep  jowl,  a 
neck  of  fair  length  and  well  crested,  an  especially  round 
rib,  smooth  level  croup,  full  muscular  quarters  and  ample 
bone.  Chestnut  color  with  white  markings  all  around  is 
the  rule,  although  bays  and  browns  are  common.  The 


FIG.  76.  —  A  Hackney  stallion. 

way  of  going  of  the  Hackney  is  characteristic.  He  is 
naturally  disposed  to  be  proud  and  stylish  and  goes  with  a 
degree  of  action  that  is  unexcelled,  hocks  especially  being 
sharply  flexed. 

There  being  no  discrimination  in  the  studbook  between 
full-sized  Hackneys  and  ponies,  the  line  between  them  is 
not  sharply  drawn.  Mares  of  some  size  are  mated  with 


156 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


pony  stallions  and  vice  versa,  with  the  results  that  there 
are  many  undersized  individuals,  over  the  pony  limit,  yet 
too  small  to  be  acceptable  as  horses.  The  naturally  full, 
well-crested  neck  shows  a  tendency  to  be  too  strong  in 
some  cases,  the  thick  throttle  compressing  the  larynx 


FIG.  77.  —  A  French  Coach  stallion. 


when  flexed,  as  it  is  when  the  horse  is  driven.  Hackneys 
are  essentially  high  steppers  and  some  do  not  go  on  in 
their  stride  but  tramp  too  much  in  the  same  place. 
Stamina,  also,  has  not  been  sought  nor  required  in  the 
performance  for  which  the  Hackney  is  best  qualified. 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES  157 

They  should  not,  however,  appear  soft.  Height  of  stride 
increases  concussion,  but  that  is  not  sufficient  excuse 
for  some  Hackneys  pounding  as  they  do,  nor  should  their 
action  be  labored,  but  airy. 

173.  The  French  Coach  (Fig.  77) .  — Demi-sang  or  half 
blooded  to  begin  with  and  having  been  bred  for  cavalry 
service  primarily,  the  French  Coach  horse  is  not  as  readily 
distinguishable  as  the  other  heavy  harness  breeds  in  which 
the  type  is  more  uniform.     The  most  approved  individuals 
of  this  breed  are  about  sixteen  hands  high,  and  weigh 
from  1200  to  1400  pounds ;   are  rather  upstanding,  suffi- 
ciently close  and  full  made  to  be  of  true  harness  form,  yet 
manifesting   no   suggestion   of   draftiness.     They   should 
reflect  their  proximate  Thoroughbred  ancestry  'by  their 
refined  heads  and  necks  and  the  texture  of  bone  and  hoof 
in  their  legs  and  feet.     Hard,  solid  colors  prevail,  although 
one  or  two  white  points,  though  rarely  more,  are  common. 
They  move  with  a  creditable  show  of  both  pace  and  action. 

In  addition  to  the  rather  general  lack  of  uniformity  of 
type  there  are  many  individuals  of  this  breed  that  display 
too  much  of  the  cold  character  of  their  original  maternal 
ancestry.  Others,  which  give  much  promise  standing 
still,  are  most  indifferent  actors,  and  even  among  those 
which  go  well  there  is  a  tendency  to  do  it  all  in  front,  failing 
to  follow  with  a  balanced  action  of  hocks. 

174.  The  German  Coach  (Fig. 78).  —  Tap  rooted  in  the 
region  to  which  the  Flemish  horse  was  indigenous  and  bred 
primarily  for  the  mounting  of  the  heavy,  fully  equipped 
German  trooper,  size  and  substance  predominate  in  this 
breed.     They  stand  full  sixteen  hands  or  more  and  some 
weigh  fifteen  hundred  pounds,  being  the  largest  of  the  heavy 
harness  breeds.     Size  and  substance,  without  the  introduc- 
tion of  any  draft  character,  and  hard,  solid  colors,  more 


158 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


uniformly  than  in  any  other  breed,  are  the  characters  by 
which  German  Coachers  are  distinguished  from  represent- 
atives of  the  other  heavy  harness  breeds. 

There  is  a  marked  tendency  -for  them  to  be  gross  and 
lymphatic.     A  drafty  form,  coarse  head  and  neck,  rough 


FIG.  78.  —  A  German  Coach  stallion. 


joints,  a  sluggish  disposition  and  inability  to  step  either 
high  or  reasonably  fast  are  features  which  judges  of  this 
breed  of  horses  should  discriminate  against. 

176.    The  Standardbred.  —  Created  at  the  instance  of 


THE  BREEDS   OF  HORSES 


159 


the  American  road  driver  who  first  sought  harness  speed, 
bred  from  a  composite  foundation,  in  which  the  Thorough- 
bred top  cross  figured  most  conspicuously,  the  base  con- 
sisting of  common  bred  mares  which  had  shown  an  aptitude 
to  trot,  due,  perhaps,  to  the  blood  of  the  Dutch  trotter, 
this  horse  has  been  bred  to  a  standard  of  speed  perform- 


FIG.  79.  —  A  Standardbred  stallion. 

ance.  As  a  result,  the  type  is  not  uniform,  although  the 
extreme  speed  performance  has  been  attained  in  a  wonder- 
ful degree  and  with  extraordinary  regularity.  Standard- 
breds  (Fig.  79)  range  in  height  from  pony  stature  to  sixteen 
hands  and  in  weight  from  800  to  1200  pounds  or  over,  the 
most  approved  size  being  about  15-3  and  1100  pounds. 
They  conform  to  the  general  speed  type,  modified  in  those 


160  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

special  features  which  distinguish  trotter  and  pacer  from 
runner  and  jumper,  i.e.  a  lower  forehand,  a  longer,  more 
sloping  croup,  greater  relative  length  from  elbow  to  knee, 
and  from  hip  to  hock,  resulting  in  the  hocks  being  set 
farther  back,  and  necessitating  a  more  abrupt  deviation 
of  the  hind  legs  downward  and  forward  to  the  ground. 
The  head  of  the  Standardbred  is  of  good  size,  not  espe- 
cially fine,  but  clean  cut,  the  neck  of  medium  length,  lean 
and  straight.  The  way  of  going  is  most  characteristic. 
Whether  at  trot  or  pace  the  gait  is  distinguished  by 
the  length  and  rapidity  of  the  individual  strides,  and  the 
level,  true,  frictionless  manner  in  which  they  are  executed. 
Furthermore,  the  instinct  to  trot  is  well  marked.  Colors 
are  not  at  all  uniform  although  bays  predominate. 

Undersized  and  ill  shaped  individuals  with  ewe  necks, 
goose  rumps,  bent  or  rounded  hocks  and  tied-in  cannons 
are  too  common. 

176.  The  Thoroughbred.  —  As  indicated  by  the  name, 
this  is  the  purest  breed  of  horses,  except  the  Oriental,  from 
which  they  are  derived.  They  were  the  first  to  be  im- 
proved and  the  first  for  which  pedigree  records  were  kept 
and  a  stud-book  established.  They  also  have  been  bred 
for  about  two  and  one  half  centuries  with  running  speed 
as  the  sole  consideration.  The  typical  Thoroughbred  is 
characterized,  therefore,  by  the  strongest  evidence  of  breed- 
ing and  refinement,  together  with  a  racy  form  and  tem- 
perament. The  most  representative  individuals  (Fig.  80) 
stand  near  sixteen  hands,  and  weigh  1000  to  1100  pounds. 
They  are  rangy,  with  that  length  of  legs,  body  and  neck 
which  is  conducive  to  a  long  stride.  They  conform 
strictly  to  the  speed  form,  in  fact,  are  the  truest  exponents 
of  the  speed  type,  distinguished  from  the  trotter  and  pacer 
by  greater  range,  better  development  of  the  forehand,  more 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 


161 


level  croup,  thicker  thighs,  less  proportionate  length  from 
hip  to  hock,  and  therefore  a  straighter  hind  leg,  longer,  more 
sloping  pasterns,  a  smaller  foot  of  finer  texture,  finer  bone, 
and  a  predisposition  to  stand  over  at  the  knee.  The  head 
is  the  smallest  and  best  proportioned,  with  features  and 
lineaments  most  sharply  defined ;  the  neck  long,  slender, 


FIG.  80. —  A  Thoroughbred  stallion. 

and  especially  well  cut  out  at  the  juncture  with  the  head, 
which  it  carries  well  forward  rather  than  up  ;  the  shoulder 
longest  and  most  sloping,  the  withers  highest,  leanest 
and  most  extended.  Bay,  chestnut  and  brown  with  white 
markings  are  the  most  common  colors,  although  black, 
gray  and  white  were  formerly  not  infrequent  and  are  yet 
sometimes  seen.  The  way  of  going  of  the  Thoroughbred 


162  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

is  very  characteristic  ;  being  essentially  a  galloper,  his  walk 
and  trot  are  nol  as  good  as  that  gait  at  which  he  excels. 
He  walks  indifferently  and  trots  with  a  low,  pointing  stride 
in  front  and  a  dragging  of  hocks.  At  the  gallop,  how- 
ever, it  seems  as  though  his  whole  makeup  were  designed 
with  that  end  in  view,  each  part  acting  coordinately  with 
the  others  to  make  a  perfect  gallop. 

The  ranginess  of  the  speed  form  is  sometimes  overdone  in 
the  Thoroughbred,  rendering  him  weedy  (too  long-legged 
and  light-bodied).  There  is  also  a  tendency,  in  some  in- 
dividuals, to  be  too  fine  in  bone  and  too  small,  especially 
when  measured  up  to  the  present  standard.  Quite 
commonly  they  are  too  "  hot "  in  temperament  and 
erratic  in  disposition. 

Judges  of  Thoroughbreds  usually  distinguish  between 
the  race  horse  and  the  hunter  and  saddle  horse,  especially 
when  they  are  concerned  as  sires. 

177.  The  American  Saddle  Horse.  —  This  is  a  Thorough- 
bred derivative,  rendered  especially  adaptable  to  the  pur- 
pose for  which  bred  by  the  ambling  instinct  contributed  by 
the  "  native  "  mares  with  which  the  foundation  Thorough- 
breds were  mated.  Since  their  foundation,  Saddle  horses 
have  been  selected  to  a  model,  as  well  as  a  performance, 
standard.  They  may  be  distinguished  by  the  following 
characters  (Fig.  81)  ;  an  upstanding  horse  of  most  symmet- 
rical and  beautifully  molded  form,  a  well-proportioned, 
blood-like  head,  the  features  of  which  are  most  clearly  de- 
fined, an  intelligent  countenance,  and  an  exceptionally 
long,  shapely  and  supple  neck,  on  which  the  head  is  set 
in  a  lofty,  graceful  manner.  The  two  ends  are  the  most 
characteristic  parts  of  the  Saddle-bred  horse,  the  long,  level 
croup  and  unusually  high  set  and  proudly  carried  tail 
balancing  the  lofty  carriage  of  head,  in  compliance  with 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 


163 


the  Kentuckian's  idea  of  "  Head  up  and  tail  a-risin'."  An 
extreme  degree  of  quality,  finish  and  style,  with  a  rich  bay, 
brown,  chestnut  or  black  color,  usually  moderately  and 
evenly  marked  with  white,  complete  a  beautiful  picture 
horse.  The  way  of  going  was  formerly  distinguished  by 


FIG.  81.  —  An  American  Saddle  stallion. 


the  rack,  but  with  the  increasing  favor  shown  the  walk- 
trot-canter  horse  the  rack  has  been  omitted  in  many 
representatives  of  this  breed.  The  trot  is  quite  frequently 
marked  by  more  action  than  is  usually  required  of  saddle 
horses,  and  is,  in  fact,  well  suited  to  harness  performance. 
The  highest  class  Saddle-bred  horse  is  a  show  horse  in  every 
sense  of  the  word,  whether  under  saddle  or  in  harness. 


164 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


So  much  has  been  made  of  the  two  ends  of  the  Saddle 
horse  that  they  are  sometimes  deficient  in  the  middle, 
being  both  low  in  the  back  and  short  in  the  rib,  while  the 
quality  by  which  they  are  characterized  may  be  had  at 
such  a  sacrifice  of  substance  as  to  render  them  too  fine. 


FIG.  82.  —  A  Shetland  stallion. 

The  model  and  show  idea  may  be  allowed  to  detract  from 
serviceability.  Too  light,  washy  colors  are  sometimes 
encountered. 

178.  The  Shetland.  —  This  is  the  smallest  of  the  equine 
breeds,  a  standard  of  42  inches  and  a  limit  of  46  inches,  in 
excess  of  which  they  cannot  quality  for  registration,  hav- 
ing been  established  (Fig.  82) .  Shetland  ponies  are  used 
to  pack  peat,  the  universal  fuel  used  by  the  native  crofters 


THE  BREEDS   OF  HORSES 


165 


of  the  Shetland  Islands,  and  they  frequently  carry  loads 
of  140  pounds.  They  were  first  introduced  into  Great 
Britain  for  service  in  the  mines  to  get  the  coal  out  of  the 


FIG.  83.  —  A  Welsh  pony  stallion. 

shallow  veins,  where  horses  and  mules  could  not  go.  The 
child's  pony  idea  is  claimed  to  have  originated  in  this 
country.  For  these  reason's  it  is  not  difficult  to  account 
for  the  variance  in  type  from  the  British  and  the  American 


166  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

points  of  view.  The  old  country  type  is  naturally  a  pony 
of  power,  —  a  draft  horse  in  miniature  —  while  the 
American  demand  is  for  a  pony  of  less  blocky  form,  with  a 
finer  head  and  neck,  a  better  shape,  especially  in  forehand 
and  hindquarters,  and  more  step.  The  natural  stride  is 
short  and  pointing,  any  great  display  of  action  usually 
being  due  to  weighting,  which  is  often  excessive.  Shetland 
color  is  most  typically  a  cinnamon  brown  or  black,  al- 
though piebalds,  skewbalds,  bays,  chestnuts  and  even 
odd  colors,  as  dun  and  mouse  color,  are  encountered. 
Breeders  generally  prefer  the  hard,  solid  colors,  while  the 
broken  colors  are  most  popular  with  the  buyers  of  ponies 
for  children's  use. 

Coarse  heads,  thick  necks,  round,  pudgy  middles,  steep 
croups,  light  thighs  and  crooked  legs  are  too  common. 
This  pony's  greatest  asset  is  his  docility  ;  therefore  any 
manifestation  of  ill  temper  should  be  seriously  discriminated 
against. 

179.  The  Welsh.  —  Derived  from  a  hardy  race  of  ponies 
native  to  the  Welsh  mountains,  this  breed  has  been  im- 
proved in  shape  and  way  of  going,  partly  by  means  of 
Hackney  crosses,  till  they  are  very  typical  heavy  harness 
horses  in  miniature  (Fig.  83).  They  range  in  height  from 
the  Shetland  limit  of  11  hands  2  inches  to  the  pony  limit 
of  14  hands  2  inches. 

The  foreign  Welsh  Pony  and  Cob  Stud-book  extends 
its  classification  to  include,  as  cobs,  horses  of  Welsh 
breeding  which  stand  as  high  as  15  hands  2  inches. 
The  classification  follows : 

A.  Ponies  not  exceeding  12  hands  2  inches. 

B.  Ponies  12  hands  2  inches  to  13  hands  2  inches. 

C.  Ponies  13  hands  2  inches  to  14  hands  2  inches. 

D.  Ponies  14  hands  2  inches  to  15  hands  2  inches. 


THE  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 


167 


Welsh  ponies  should  be  considered  more  in  the  nature, 
of  little  horses  than  as  children's  playmates,  like  the 
Shetlands.  Some  go  high  and  others  can  step  quite  fast, 
while  all  have  extraordinary  stamina.  Bay  and  brown 


FIG.  84.  —  A  Hackney  pony  stallion. 

are  the  most  common  colors,  though  chestnut,  gray  and 
roan  are  frequently  seen. 

There  is  not  sufficient  attention  paid  to  form  in  the 
breeding  of  most  ponies  and  some  Welsh  are  coarse  and 
ill  shaped. 

180.  The  Hackney  Pony.  —  This  is  simply  a  Hackney 
under  14  hands  2  inches,  with  all  of  the  breed  charac- 
teristics accentuated  (Fig.  84). 


CHAPTER  X 
THE  MULE 

THE  mule  is  the  equine  hybrid  between  the  male  ass, 
Equus  assinus,  and  the  mare,  Equus  caballus.  Although 
"  with  no  pride  of  ancestry,  no  hope  of  posterity,"  as  the 
Missourian  has  well  said,  and  therefore  eliminated  from 
the  scope  of  this  work  in  so  far  as  selection  in  breeding  is 
concerned,  there  is  ample  justification,  if  little  precedent, 
for  including  the  mule  in  this  discussion. 

He  rules  supreme  in  the  field  of  the  work  horse  in  the 
South,  while  in  some  other  agricultural  districts  he  is 
depended  upon  for  the  farm  work,  and  his  use  in  the  cities 
is  considerable.  It  is  important  for  those  who  use  mules, 
as  well  as  those  who  purchase  them,  to  know  what  mule 
excellence  consists  of. 

Mules  have  been  variously  classed,  in  accordance  with 
the  nature  of  the  work  to  which  they  are  put,  but  there 
are  essentially  but  two  types,  draft  and  plantation. 

181.  The  draft  mule.  —  These  mules  are  used  for 
power  service  chiefly  outside  the  cities  or  at  least  off  the 
city  streets.  Mules  pull  more  by  their  muscular  strength 
and  steady,  persistent  effort  than  by  virtue  of  their  weight, 
and  are  especially  handy  and  sure  footed  in  rough  and  try- 
ing places.  They  "  push  "  rather  than  "  lift  "  their  load. 
For  this  reason,  as  well  as  on  account  of  the  small  circum- 
ference of  their  feet  and  comparatively  less  weight,  they 
are  not  as  satisfactory  on  paved  city  streets  as  horses. 
168 


THE  MULE  169 

The  draft  mule  (Fig.  85)  weighs  1200  to  1250  pounds  and 
stands  fifteen  hands  three  inches  to  seventeen  hands,  a 
mule  being  taller  in  proportion  to  his  weight  than  a  horse. 


Fio.  85.  —  A  draft  mule. 

Obrecht l  shows  one  weighing  1900  pounds  and  standing 
eighteen  hands  two  inches.  This  mule  conforms  to  the 
draft  horse  type  in  being  low  set,  broad,  deep,  compact, 
masfeive  and  big-boned,  with  quality  manifested  particu- 
larly in  smoothness  and  a  straight,  strong  way  of  going. 

Mules  of  the  draft  type  are  classified  as  drafters  and 
miners. 

Drafter  is  the  largest  representative  of  this  type,  best 

"Bulletin  No.  122,  Illinois  Experiment  Station. 


170 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


adapted  to  heavy  work,  as  on  the  streets  of  Southern 
cities,  city  contractors'  operations,  railroad  grades,  and 
in  lumber  camps. 

Miner  is  characterized  by  being  more  blocky  and  rugged 
with  most  power  in  least  stature.  They  range  in  height 
from  the  twelve  hand  pitter  for  working  in  low  chambers 
to  the  sixteen  hand  mule  for  work  at  the  surface.  Their 
weights  vary,  accordingly,  from  600  to  1300  pounds. 

182.  The  plantation  mule.  —  The  requirements  of  the 
plantation  mule  are  to  walk  fast,  endure  the  hard  work  of 


FIG.  86.  —  A  plantation  mule. 


THE  MULE  171 

the  soft  ground  through  the  heat  of  the  day  and  be  sure- 
footed, so  as  not  to  tramp  plants  in  cultivating.  The  mule 
for  this  service  is  more  rangy  and  snappy  than  the  draft 
mule,  characters  derived  from  more  hot  blood  in  the  dams 
and  therefore  associated  with  less  size  and  substance  in  the 
mules.  Representatives  of  this  type  (Fig.  86)  weigh  from 
950  to  1200  pounds  and  stand  fourteen  hands  two  inches  to 
sixteen  hands  two  inches.  They  are  built  more  on  the 
rapid  draft  order,  conforming  somewhat  to  the  shape  of 
an  express  horse,  and  should  have  especially  good  legs 
and  feet,  a  high  degree  of  refinement,  an  active,  nervous 
temperament  and  be  straight,  free,  snappy  movers. 

Mules  of  the  plantation  type  are  classified  as  sugar, 
cotton  and  farm. 

The  sugar  mule  is  for  the  use  of  the  Southern  planter. 
He  is  the  best  representative  of  this  type,  rangy,  smooth, 
with  great  quality  and  breediness,  yet  ample  bone. 

The  cotton  mule  is  a  smaller,  somewhat  plainer  planta- 
tion mule  of  the  same  general  type  as  the  sugar  mule. 

The  farm  mule  class  comprises  the  poorer  grades  of  the 
other  two  classes,  or  thin  mules  that  might  feed  into  either 
of  the  other  classes  which  are  purchased  by  the  farm 
trade. 

Mare  mules  are  usually  preferred  as  being  smoother, 
better  shaped  and  easier  keepers.  Seal  brown  is  the  color 
most  desired,  then  bay,  chestnut  and  gray. 


PART   IV 
JUDGING  CATTLE 


CHAPTER  XI 
THE   TYPES 

183.  The  block  group.   —  Preliminary  to  the  considera- 
tion of  beef  cattle,  those  features  characteristic  of  all  the 
block  group,  namely,  beef  cattle,  mutton  sheep  and  fat 
hogs,  in  common,  may  be  disposed  of. 

All  vertebrates  are  possessed  of  a  muscular  system 
mounted  upon  a  skeleton  foundation  which  serves  the 
purpose  of  locomotion  or  any  other  motion  of  which  the 
animal  is  capable.  Under  feral  conditions  animals  resort 
to  movements  of  various  kinds  for  their  sustenance  and 
their  protection.  The  husbandman  has  in  this  instance, 
as  in  many  others,  perverted  a  natural  function  into  other 
lines  more  useful  to  him,  and  this  muscular  system  which 
was  furnished  the  animal  as  a  means  of  moving,  living 
and  having  its  being  becomes  the  source  of  one  of  man's 
most  concentrated,  nutritious  and  digestible  foods. 

184.  Meat,  although  it   may  mean   any  food,  is  gen- 
erally understood  to  be  a  portion  of  the  animal's  body 
composed  chiefly  of  muscle,  the  connective  tissue  by  which 
it  is  supported,  the  fatty  tissue  by  which  it  is  enveloped 
and  interspersed,  and  the  section  of  the  skeleton  upon 
which  it  is  mounted.     The  animal  from  which  the  meat  is 
secured  gives  to  it  its  specific  nature,  as  beef,  mutton,  or 
pork.     Meat,  however,  is  a  carcass  term  and  is  not  ap- 
plied to  the  tissue  mentioned  in  the  living  animal.     The 
synonymous  term,  having  reference  to  the  animal  rather 

175 


176  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

than  to  the  carcass,  is  flesh.  Yet  there  should  be  dis- 
crimination in  the  use  of  this  term.  To  speak  of  eating 
the  flesh  of  animals  implies  a  meaning  identical  with  meat, 
but  reference  to  the  natural  flesh  or  the  thick  flesh,  of 
feeder  steers,  for  instance,  includes  the  muscle  only,  with- 
out the  fat,  and  therein  lies  the  distinction.  Whereas  the 
muscle  that  is  most  efficient  for  movement  is  of  such  firm 
texture  and  so  devoid  of  any  fat  as  to  render  it  tough,  the 
chief  feature  of  the  muscle  which  constitutes  the  desirable 
lean  of  meat  is  just  the  reverse. 

The  function  of  meat-producing  animals  is  the  conver- 
sion of  common  foodstuffs,  in  a  form  not  available  to  man, 
into  a  concentrated,  palatable,  easily  digested  form  of 
protein  and  fat. 

The  profit  returned  by  them  is  divided  between  the 
breeder  who  produces  them,  the  feeder  who  finishes 
them,  the  butcher  or  packer  who  dresses  and  wholesales 
their  carcasses,  and  the  retailer  who  purveys  them  to 
the  consumers,  their  ultimate  end.  It  is  rare,  except  in 
the  case  of  production  for  limited  farm  or  home  use,  that 
one  and  the  same  individual  is  concerned  with  each  step. 

185.  The  breeder's,  the  feeder's  and  the  butcher's  inter- 
ests in  the  meat  animal.  —  Success,  on  the  breeder's  part, 
consists  in  producing  an  animal  that  is  a  satisfactory 
butcher  prospect  acceptable  to  the  feeder.  The  feeder's 
business  is  to  secure,  in  the  shortest  feeding  period  and 
with  the  most  economic  and  productive  use  of  food,  the 
most  highly  finished  and  satisfactory  butcher  beast. 
The  butcher's  proposition  is  to  obtain,  in  the  dressed 
animal,  as  high  a  percentage  of  his  gross  live  weight  as 
possible  and  to  have  the  maximum  amount  of  the  dressed 
weight  carried  in  those  parts  of  the  carcass  for  which  there 
is  greatest  demand  and  the  highest  price  paid.  The  re- 


THE  TYPES  177 

taller,  finally,  buys  ribs  and  loins  of  such  quality  of  meat  as 
will  secure  for  him  the  most  generous  patronage  of  those 
consumers  who  appreciate  and  pay  for  the  best  meats. 

Type  is  therefore  the  primary  consideration  of  the 
breeder ;  early  maturity,  feeding  and  rapid  fattening  capac- 
ity, of  the  feeder ;  dressing  percentage  and  distribution  of 
the  weight  in  the  carcass,  of  the  butcher ;  and  quality,  of  the 
man  who  cuts  the  carcass  on  the  block. 

Economy  in  production  is  a  matter  of  type,  early  ma- 
turity, rapid  fattening  and  dressing  percentage.  Quality 
of  the  product  depends  upon  the  breeding,  feeding,  age 
and  dressing  of  the  animal  and  the  cutting  of  the  carcass, 
and  consists  of  texture,  color,  consistence,  distribution 
and  proportion  of  the  fat  and  lean  and  the  percentage  of 
meat  to  bone. 

186.  The  block  type.  —  Prime  carcasses  of  meat  are 
produced  by  immature,  unsexed  animals,  more  commonly 
males,   of  the  block  type  fed  to  their  optimum  degree 
of  ripeness.     The  block  type  is  characterized  by  a  blocky 
or  rectangular  form  set  on  short  legs  and  furnished  with 
thick  flesh  (Fig.  87). 

187.  Early  maturity.  —  There  is  a  marked  difference 
in  the  extent  to  which   individuals   will  develop   in   the 
same  period  of  time.     Interest  on  investment,  labor  and 
feed  must  all  be  charged  against  gross  receipts  to  de- 
termine the  net  profit  returned  by  any  block  animal, 
and  these  three  important  profit  factors  are  all  reduced 
in  the  case  of  the  early  maturing  animal. 

188.  Rapid  fattening  is  usually  correlated  with  early 
maturity    but    should    be    distinguished    from    it.     One 
animal  matures  rapidly,  fattening  readily  at  the  same  time  ; 
another  may  mature  slowly,  then  fatten  quickly,  after 
once  mature ;  still  another  may  reach  maturity  promptly, 


178 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


but  never  develop  any  capacity  to  fatten.  Rapid  fatten- 
ing, like  early  maturity,  means  prompt  returns  and  gener- 
ous margins. 

189.    Dressing  percentage  expresses  that  proportion  of 
the  live  animal  which  is  hung  up  after  being  killed  and 


FIG.  87.  —  The  block  type.     This  steer  dressed  the  International  Grand 
Champion  carcass. 

dressed.  The  difference  between  the  live  weight  and  the 
dressed  weight  represents  the  offal  and  a  slight  shrinkage 
in  chilling. 

190.  Quality  in  meat.  —  So  far  as  the  consumer  is 
concerned  quality  consists  of  such  a  fine,  delicate  texture 
of  the  meat  as  will  insure  easy  mastication,  toughness 
being  most  suggestive  of  low  quality  to  the  majority  of 


THE   TYPES 


179 


meat  eaters ;  also  such  flavor  as  will  make  the  meat  most 
palatable,  this  being  of  secondary  importance  to  texture 
as  a  rule,  because  flavor  may  be  altered  to  such  an  extent 
in  the  cooking  process.  The  relative  nutritive  values 
of  meat  figure  less  in  the  consumer's  demand  and  are, 
therefore,  of  less  concern  to  the  judge.  Both  texture 
and  flavor  are  contributed  to  or  indicated  by  the  grain  of 
the  lean,  the  proportion  of  fat  to  lean,  the  distribution  of 
the  fat,  the  color  and  consistence  of  both  lean  and  fat 
and  the  moisture  and  odor  of  the  meat. 

191.  The  grain  of  the  meat  involves  especially  the  part 
of  the  carcass  from  which  the  cut  is  taken,  improving 
toward  the  center  of  the  carcass  away  from  the  extremi- 
ties, the  coarser  cuts  being  taken  from  the  neck,  shoulders, 
shanks,  the  small  part  of  the  leg 

and  the  rump,  the  loin  and  rib 
cuts  being  finest  .  grained.  Old 
animals,  as  a  rule,  have  coarser- 
grained  muscle  tissue  with  more 
connective  tissue  in  it  than  do 
younger  ones. 

192.  Marbling.  —  A  generous 
proportion  of  fat  to  lean  is  de- 
sirable, since  it  is  impossible  to 
secure,    age,   or    prepare    prime 
meat  without  fat.     The  better 
class  of  meat  animals  are  all  fed 
to  a  high  finish.     Unless  there  is 
a  fairly  thick  layer  of  fat  sur- 
rounding the  cuts  they  rapidly 
deteriorate  and  dry  out  before 

they  can  be  properly  aged ;  while  in  the  roasting  pan  or 
broiler  the  envelope  of  fat  retains  the  juice  of  the  meat. 


FIG.  88.  — The  fat  cells  in- 
terspersed between  the 
muscle  fibers. 


180  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  so-called  juices  are  not  altogether 
blood  and  cell  protoplasm,  but  fat.  A  lean  piece  of  meat 
will  be  dry  when  served.  In  order  to  impart,  as  well  as 
preserve,  juiciness  in  the  meat  the  fat  should  be  dis- 
tributed though  the  lean  as  well  as  accumulated  on  the 
surface  of  the  cuts.  Interspersed  within  and  about  the 
bundles  of  individual  muscle  fibers  (Fig.  88),  it  constitutes 
the  marbling  that  is  most  noticeable  in  the  rib  (Fig.  89) 
and  loin  cuts  of  beef,  which  in  addition  to  furnishing 


FIG.  89.  —  The  "  marbling  "  of  meat. 

juice  improves  the  cooking  quality  of  the  meat  by  con- 
ducting the  heat  of  the  fire  uniformly  throughout  the 
mass. 

193.  Color  and  consistence  of  fat  and  lean.  —  It  has 
been  demonstrated  that  the  fat  that  is  most  disposed 
to  thus  distribute  itself  instead  of  accummulating  either 
externally  or  internally  is  of  a  white,  not  yellow,  color, 
and  of  a  crisp,  brittle,  not  greasy,  consistency.  Also  that 
the  lean  most  likely  to  be  well  marbled  is  of  a  clear,  deep, 
red  color  when  cut,  neither  light  red  nor  bluish,  and  it  has 
a  firm,  elastic  consistency,  neither  flabby  nor  doughy. 


THE  TYPES  181 

194.  Moisture.  —  Prime  meat  should  just  moisten  the 
finger  when  touched,  and  should  not  be  slimy.  Either 
immaturity  or  old  age  may  be  responsible  for  a  slimy  con- 
dition, as  may  also  emaciation  from  any  cause. 

196.  Odor.  —  Properly  dressed  meat  in  a  good  state 
of  preservation  has  scarcely  any  odor. 

196.  Taste  not  only  depends  upon  the  prime  nature 
of  the  meat  and  the  manner  of  preparing  and  serving  it, 
but  upon  the  care  exercised  in  dressing.     A  sheep  butcher, 
for  instance,  will  use  the  utmost  care  in  turning  back  the 
pelt  so  that  the  wool  may  not  touch  the  carcass  and  give 
it  a  woolly  taste. 

197.  Proportion  of  lean  to  bone.  —  The  amount  of  the 
bone   in   proportion  to   the   weight   of  the  carcass  con- 
cerns  the   consumer   most   of   all,  bone   being  waste  to 
him,  and  on  this  account  rough,  coarse-boned  steers,  hogs 
and  sheep  are  discriminated  against  all  along  the  line. 
Refinement  of  bone  is  a  feature  of  the  general  refinement 
which  results  from  improved  breeding  and  is  correlated 
with  quality  of  the  carcass  in  general  and  little  waste. 

198.  Influence  of  breeding.  —  Feed  is  prerequisite  to 
fat,  but  the  amount,  distribution,  color  and  consistence 
of  the  fat  as  well  as  the   color  and  consistence  of   the 
lean  and  the  shape  of  the  carcass  are  matters  of  breeding. 
For  instance,  representatives  of  leading  beef  and   dairy 
breeds  have  been  fed  the  same  rations  under  identical  con- 
ditions for  equal  periods  with  extremely  different  results 
between  the  individuals  of  the  beef  and  dairy  groups.1 
This  test  carried  through  to  the  actual  cutting  of  the  car- 
casses demonstrated  what  has  usually  been  found  to  be  the 
rule,  i.e.  that  the  beef-bred  animal  increases    his  weight 
by  the  formation  of  fat,  while' the  dairy-bred  steer  grows 

1  Iowa  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  No.  81. 


182  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

an  excess  of  bone ;  that  the  former  deposits  his  fat  in,  as 
well  as  upon,  the  lean,  thus  enhancing  the  actual  value  of 
the  carcass  as  well  as  increasing  the  dressing  percentage, 
while  the  latter  accumulates  an  excess  of  fat  about  the 
viscera,  organs  which,  with  the  exception  of  the  kidney, 
are  removed  in  dressing,  the  carcass  showing  no  marbling 
whatever;  that  the  fat  of  the  beef  carcass  is  of  the  sort 
described  above,  while  that  of  the  dairy  animal  is  high 
colored  and  buttery,  the  lean  of  the  former  fine  grained 
and  of  good  color,  while  that  of  the  latter  is  cross  grained 
and  dark  colored. 

Cattle  (Bos  taurus)  are  the  largest  of  the  domesticated 
ruminants.  They  were  early  domesticated  and  have  served 
the  triple  purpose  of  work,  milk  and  meat  in  the  order 
named.  They  are  especially  adapted  to  the  consumption 
of  large  amounts  of  roughage  and  are  thus  conservators  of 
much  that  would  otherwise  be  wasted. 

The  types  of  cattle  are  beef,  dairy  and  dual  purpose. 

BEEF  CATTLE 

The  unsexed  male  or  female,  of  immature  age  and  in 
prime  condition  yields  the  most  desirable  carcass  of 
beef,  —  bulls,  stags  and  old  females,  especially  worn-out 
dairy  cows,  being  utilized  chiefly  as  cured  beef  or  cut  up 
for  the  lower  class  trade. 

199.  Production. —  Since  the  best  beef  animal  is  the 
one  which  hangs  up  the  most  superior  carcass,  the  slaughter 
test  must  be  kept  in  view  by  the  beef  cattle  judge,  and 
the  most  exacting  demands  of  the  consumer  patron  of  the 
retail  butcher  should  be  given  due  consideration.  It 
seems  reasonable  that  the  "judge  of  beef  cattle  should  be 
a  connoisseur  of  sirloin.  Since  quality  of  beef  is  one 


THE  TYPES  183 

of  the  ends  sought  in  the  fat  steer  it  is  well  for  the  judge 
to  know  just  what  that  quality  consists  of  (paragraph  190). 

The  beef  steer  is,  however,  required  to  do  more  than  to 
satisfy  the  demands  of  the  beef-eating  public ;  he  must 
return  a  profit  to  his  butcher,  his  feeder  and  his  breeder. 
The  factors  of  quality  already  considered  determine 
whether  or  not  the  carcass  will  grade  as  prime  and  bring 
the  highest  price,  but  there  are  other  factors  which  fix 
the  other  limit  of  the  butcher's  margin  of  profit  that  are 
of  equal  importance.  The  butcher  pays  8  cents  a  pound 
for  the  live  steer  which  weighs  1200  pounds  on  foot. 
He  immediately  subjects  the  steer  to  slaughter  and  dressing 
which  converts  him  into  two  sides  of  beef  and  the  dressing 
offal,  consisting  of  hide,  head,  shins  and  feet,  blood,  chest 
and  abdominal  viscera  and  their  contents.  This,  with 
the  shrinkage  incident  to  the  loss  of  moisture  in  chilling, 
may  amount  to  from  50  %  to  25  %  of  the  live  weight  of 
the  steer  originally  purchased .  While  with  modern  packing 
methods  every  particle  of  the  offal  has  some  value,  the 
aggregate  will  not  amount  to  as  much  as  its  original  pur- 
chase price.  Furthermore,  there  are  many  pounds  of 
the  dressed  carcass  that  must  be  sold  at  from  25  %  to 
50  %  less  than  they  cost.  Therefore  the  burden  of 
responsibility  for  the  profit  to  be  yielded  by  the  carcass 
must  rest  upon  those  parts  for  which  a  price  much  in 
excess  of  cost  can  be  secured.  Quality  being  equal,  the 
steer  that  will  hang,  in  dressed  sides,  the  greatest  amount 
of  his  live  weight  and  that  carries  the  major  part  of  his 
dressed  weight  in  those  regions  of  the  carcass  which  com- 
mand the  best  price,  is  most  profitable. 

200.  The  beef  carcass  cuts.  —  The  division  of  the  car- 
cass as  it  is  cut  up  by  the  butcher  should  be  anticipated 
by  the  judge.  These  divisions  are  indicated  by  the  follow- 
ing diagram  (Fig.  90). 


FIG.  90.  — Beef  carcass  cuts.  1,  2,  3,  round  ;  4,  5,  6,  loin  ;  7,  rib  ;  8,  chuck  ;  9,  flank  ; 
10,  11,  plate  ;  12,  shank  ;  13,  suet.  1,  hind  shank  ;  2,  round,  R.  &  S.  off  ;  3,  rump ; 
4,  5,  loin  end  ;  6,  pinbone  loin  ;  5,  6,  flatbone  loin  ;  10,  navel  ;  11,  brisket.  1,  2,  3, 
4,  5,  6,  9,  hindquarter;  7,  8,  10,  11,  12,  forequarter ;  7,  8,  back;  7,  10,  piece;  8,  11, 
12,  Kosher  chuck;  8,  10,  11,  12,  triangle,  a,  aitch  bone;  b,  rump  bone;  c,  crotch; 
d,  cod;  e,  chine  bones;  /,  "buttons;"  g,  skirt;  h,  breast  bone.  Illinois  Bulletin  147. 

184 


THE   TYPES 


185 


After  being  bled  out,  the  head,  hide,  extremities  and 
viscera  removed,  the  carcass  is  split  into  halves.  When 
chilled  until  set,  each  side,  herefter  a  unit  in  the  trade, 
losing  all  idenity  with  its  fellow,  is  cut  into  fore  and  hind 
quarters,  division  being  made  between  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  ribs.  One  rib  is  left  on  the  loin  to  act  as  a 
stay  and  hold  its  form  in  order  that  it  may  be  better  cut. 
The  hindquarter,  the  more  valuable,  is  divided  into  loin, 
rump  and  round,  after  having  the  kidney,  with  its  accumu- 
lation of  suet,  and  the  flank  removed. 

201.  The  loin  is  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  hind- 
quarter  by  cutting  from  the  stifle,  through  the  hip  joint 
to  the  rump.  The  loin  includes  both  sirloin  and  porter- 
house. The  sirloin  (Fig.  91)  is  cut  forward  as  far  as  the 


.  —  The  sirloin  cut. 


point  of  the  hip  or  hook  bone  and  is  identified,  when 
cut,  by  the  cross  section  of  pelvic  bone  which  it  con- 
tains, the  rouud  section  of  the  shaft  in  the  first  few  cuts 
and  the  crescent  shaped  section  of  the  wing  as  the 
margin  of  the  porterhouse  is  approached.  The  porter- 
house (Fig.  92)  is  cut  forward  from  the  point  of  the  hip 


186 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


or  rather  backward  from  the  last  rib  to  this  point,  in  the 
region  of  the  loin  proper,  and  this  cut  is  identified  by  the 
"  T  "  bone.  This  consists  of  a  lumbar  vertebra  split  in 


FIG.  92.  —  The  porterhouse  cut. 

two,  which  forms  the  cross,  while  the  lateral  process  of 
the  one  side  constitutes  the  stem ;  the  tenderloin  is  con- 
tained in  the  lower  angle  thus  formed. 

202.    The  round  (Fig.  93)  is  denned  by  the  cut  already 
made  from  stifle  to  hip  joint  and  another  from  the  hip 


FIG.  93.  —  The  round  cut. 


joint  to  the  point  of  the  buttock  or  pin  bone.     There  is 
then  left  the  rump  piece,  irregular  in  shape  and  marked 


THE  TYPES 


187 


by  the  tail  head.  The  round  cuts  contain  only  the  trans- 
verse section  of  the  femur  or  thigh  bone.  The  best 
quality  of  meat  is  on  the  inside  or  the  top  of  the  round 
as  it  lies  on  the  block. 

The   forequarter   is   cut   into   the   prime  ribs,  chuck, 
neck  and  plate. 

203.  The  ribs.  —  The  prime  ribs  (Fig.  94)  include  the 
seven  ribs  counting  forward  from  the  loin  end  of  the  fore- 
quarter,  which  brings  the  division  of  the  rib  and  chuck 
between    the    fifth  _^  —  , 
and  sixth  rib.     The 

distance    down    on 

the    rib    at    which 

the    limit   between 

prime  ribs  and  plate 

is     fixed     depends 

upon  the  thickness 

of  flesh  on  the  rib 

and  the  size  of  the 

carcass.     Since  rib 

cuts  are  high  priced 

and  plate  cuts  are  low,  the  butcher  will  usually  keep  as 

much  weight  in  the  ribs  as  their  covering  will  permit  of. 

Carcasses  of  steers  that  were  bare  on  the  rib  will  cut 

proportionately  more  plate  than  those  from  steers  that 

were  thickly  fleshed  on  the  rib.     The  division  is  usually 

made  ten  to  thirteen  inches  from  the  back  bone. 

204.  The  chuck  includes  the  balance  of  the  ribs  and  the 
shoulder  blade,  limited  below  by  continuing  through  the 
shoulder  joint  the  cut  that  divides  the  prime  ribs  from  the 
plate.     The  cross  cut  ribs  and  the  clod  are  taken  from  the 
chuck  at  the  arm,  the  remainder  of  the  leg  being  the  shank. 
The  fore  part  of  the  plate  may  be  separately  designated 


The  standi"g  °r  prime  rib  cut" 


188  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

as  the  brisket.     What  is  left  in  front  of  the  first  rib  con- 
stitutes the  neck  of  the  carcass. 

SCORE   CARD 

205.  BEEF  CARCASS 

Scale  of  Points 
General  Appearance.  Perfect  Score 

1.  Form  —  compact,  well  filled  out 10 

2.  Covering  —  thick,  even,  smooth,  firm,  white  fat       .        5 

3.  Kidney  fat  —  in  proportion  to  covering,  firm,  white, 

brittle 5 

4.  Quality  —  grain  straight,  fine  texture,  firm  but  yield- 

ing to  pressure ;  color,  red  ;  fat  to  lean  well  propor- 
tioned, marbled  ;  bone,  dense,  fine 20 

Forequarters. 

5.  Neck  —  short,  neat        1 

6.  Chuck  —  shoulder     compact,     well     covered;     ribs, 

thickly  fleshed 8 

7.  Prime  ribs  —  thickly  fleshed,  carried  well  down,  firm, 

evenly    covered    with  medium    thickness    of  fat ; 
marbled 12 

8.  Plate  —  light,  not  coarse       3 

9.  Shank  —  arm,  full ;  bone,  fine 1 

Hindquarters. 

10.  Loin  —  flesh  thick,  firm,  even  ;  marbled  ;  spine  fat  of 

medium  thickness 18 

11.  Rump  —  full;  evenly  fleshed  to  tail  head      ....        4 

12.  Round  —  full,  thick,  carried  well  down ;  well  inter- 

spersed with  fat 10 

13.  Flank  — thick,  well  filled 2 

14.  Shank  —  bone,  dense,  fine    .     ,     . 1 

Total 100 

206.  Relative  values  of  the  carcass  cuts.  —  Since  the  beef 
steer  is  a  straight  business  proposition,  the  most  impor- 
tant thing  for  the  judge  to  know  regarding  the  carcass  cuts 


THE   TYPES 


189 


is  their  relative  values.  They  rank  as  follows  :  the  high- 
est priced  cut  of  the  carcass  is  the  loin,  the  rib  cut  is 
valued  at  from  10  to  20  %  less,  per  pound,  than  the  loin 
of  the  same  grade ;  the  round  at  40  to  50  %  less  than  the 
rib ;  the  rump  is  worth  a  little  less  than  the  round ;  the 
best  grade  of  chucks  sells  at  about  the  same  price  as  the 
rounds  ;  while  the  plate,  the  flank,  the  shank  and  the  neck 


sell  for  less,  per  pound,  than  the  live  weight  cost  of  the 
steer.     Steers  dress  50  %  to  70  %  of  their  live  weight. 

207.  Dressing  percentage.  —  The  dressing  percentage  of 
the  steer  involves  type,  quality  and  condition,  while  the 
relative  weights  and  values  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
carcass  are  determined  by  type  and  conformation. 

208.  Type    is   fundamental   even   to    conformation   in 
that  it  is  impossible  to  have  a  broad,  thick  loin  on  a  steer 


190  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

of  any  but  beef  type.  The  type  of  steer  that  favors 
greatest  weight  in  the  carcass,  least  waste  and  the  greatest 
proportion  of  weight  in  the  most  valuable  cuts  is  that  which 
conforms  to  a  block  or  rectangle,  being  low  set  on  short 
legs,  with  top  and  under  lines  parallel,  the  square  bris- 
ket and  hindquarters  outlining  a  parallelogram  in  profile, 
while  the  broad,  flat  back  and  loin  and  wide  ends  complete 
the  rectangle  (Fig.  95). 

209.  Conformation  of  the  beef  steer.  —  The  head  of 
the  beef  steer  serves  as  an  index  to  the  rest  of  his  make-up 
and  should  therefore  be  the  opposite  of  that  of  the  dairy 
cow,  i.e.  short,  broad  and  deep,  with  a  more  placid,  even 
lazy  expression  of  countenance ;  the  eyes  large,  full  and 
clear ;  the  muzzle  broad,  the  nostrils  large ;  the  ears  of 
medium  size,  set  high  and  carried  alert ;  the  horns  sym- 
metrical but  not  coarse,  or  a  sharp,  well-defined  pole ;  the 
neck  as  short  as  possible,  thick,  yet  not  heavy  in  the 
throat,  especially  full  in  that  region  where  the  neck 
blends  with  the  shoulder,  termed  the  shoulder  vein ;  the 
shoulders  well  laid  in,  thickly  covered,  the  side  of  the 
shoulder  being  one  place  that  is  especially  liable  to  be 
bare,  broad  across  the  top,  without  being  rough  or  open 
but  so  well  covered  as  to  be  compact  and  smooth  at 
this  point ;  chine  broad  and  level  with  a  thick  covering  of 
mellow  flesh,  also  straight,  showing  no  sag  toward  its 
juncture  with  the  loin ;  ribs  well  sprung,  deep  and  thickly 
covered,  especially  on  the  fore  rib,  that  region  designated 
as  the  crops,  a  round,  deep  rib  also  contributing  to  the 
heart  girth  and  abdominal  capacity ;  chest  deep,  full, 
level  on  the  floor  and  square  at  the  brisket ;  loin  broad, 
thick,  smooth,  no  rolls,  level,  with  no  sag  or  tie  where  it  joins 
the  back;  flank  deep  and  full,  making  a  straight  under 
line;  hips  broad,  level,  smooth  and  not  prominent; 


THE    TYPES  191 

rump  long,  broad,  level  and  smooth,  showing  no  coarseness 
of  bone  about  the  tail  head  and  no  unevenness  of  covering, 
in  the  nature  of  patches,  about  the  tail  head  or  pin  bones ; 
thighs  broad,  thick,  and  deep,  well  rounded  in  appearance 
from  any  angle  and  especially  full  and  low  in  the  region  of 
the  inner,  lower  thigh,  known  as  the  twist  on  account  of 
the  rotation  of  those  muscles  which  takes  place  when  the 
carcass  is  hung  up  by  the  hamstring,  the  juncture  of  the 
two  thighs  being  referred  to  as  the  seam  of  the  twist ; 
the  legs  short,  straight,  strong  and  fine  boned. 

210.  Quality  in  the  steer  influences  the  dressing  per- 
centage by  controlling  the  amount  of  waste  or  offal.     It 
also  makes  a  higher  grade  carcass,  quality  of  hide  and 
hair,  for  instance,  being  correlated  with  quality  of  lean 
and  fat.     Quality  is  of  hide  and   hair,   indicated   in   a 
loose,  medium  thin,  pliable,  unctuous  hide  covered  with  a 
medium  coat  of  fine,  soft,  straight  hair  and  determined 
by  handling;    of  bone,  as  evidenced  in  a  comparatively 
small,  fine  head  and  horn,  smooth  shoulders,  hooks  and 
pins,  small  cannons,  and  clearly  defined  joints;   of  flesh, 
as  shown  by  an  even,  smooth  covering  over  the  back, 
loin  and  rib  with  no  rolls  or  patches  of  fat  and  neither  too 
soft  nor  too  hard  a  feel.     Quality  is  also  concerned  with 
general  trimness  and  refinement  of  the  animal  throughout, 
indicative  of  breeding. 

211.  Condition  has  most  to  do  with  the  weight  that  is 
left  in  the  carcass   after  dressing  away  the  offal.     Of 
course,  internal  fat  increases  the  amount  of  waste,  but 
every  pound  of  fat  fed  into  the  carcass  itself  increases  the 
dressed   weight    and   therefore    the    percentage   of   live 
weight,  that  much.     Show  animals  regularly  dress  more 
than  ordinary  market  toppers,  chiefly  because  they  are 
fatter.     Condition  is  ripeness   and   until  the  steer  has 


192 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


THE  TYPES  193 

reached  this  state  he  has  not  attained  maximum  produc- 
tion. Condition  or  ripeness  is  indicated  by  a  full  purse, 
flank  and  tongue  root,  these  being  the  last  places  at  which 
fat  accumulates  in  the  ripening  process. 

212.  Feeder    cattle.  —  The    butcher    deals     with     an 
actuality,  the  feeder  with  a  prospect,  but  in  order  to  be 
successful  in  his  operations  the  feeder  must  keep  the 
butcher  requirements  constantly  in  view  (Fig.  96) .     The 
feeder's  profits  depend,  first  of  all,  upon  the  production 
of  an  acceptable  butcher's  beast,  but  secondarily  upon  the 
economy  with  which  this  can  be  accomplished.     There  is 
a  vast  difference  in  the  relative  efficiency  of  individual 
steers  so  far  as  economy  in  production  is  concerned.     Not 
all  show  steers  are  popular  with  the  packers,  but   even 
some  which  are  market  toppers  are  money  losers  when 
the  cost  of  production  is  charged  against  even  the  premium 
price  which  they  bring. 

213.  Feed  lot  production.  —  So  far  as  becoming  a  bul- 
lock acceptable  to  the  butcher  goes,  the  feeder  steer  is 
the  butcher  steer  minus  condition,  but  in  economic  pro- 
duction the  feeder  introduces  a  feature  that  is  of  no  account 
to  the  butcher,  namely,  constitution.     Profit  in  the  feed 
lot  requires  that  the  cattle  shall  be  good  "  doers,"  disposed 
to  consume  a  full  ration,  regularly,  with  no  skips  or  misses 
due  to  off-feed  periods,  and  then  capable  of  making  full 
return  in  gains  for  each  pound  of  feed  consumed  (Fig.  97) . 
In  addition,  therefore,  to  being  bred  right  feeders  must 
show  evidence  of  thrift,  vigor   and   growth,   with  early 
maturity  and  capacity  to  fatten  rapidly,  yet  evenly.     Just 
what  the  fattening  process  consists  of,  as  well  as  what  it 
accomplishes,  is  also  of  vital  concern  to  the  judge  of  feeder 
cattle.     It  should  be  understood  that  the  gains  in  weight 
shown  by  cattle  on  feed  represent  either  an  increase  in  the 


194 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


fat  content  of  the 
body  alone,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  thin  but 
mature  steer,  or  a 
growth  of  bone  and 
muscle  tissue  in  ad- 
dition to  the  deposi- 
tion of  fat,  as  takes 
place  in  the  imma- 
ture feeder.  Natural 
flesh  is  something 
with  which  calves  are 
endowed  at  birth 
and  no  amount  or 
character  of  feeding 
will  result  in  excess 
of  that  endowment. 
Natural  flesh  is  there- 
fore a  most  impor- 
tant possession  of 
the  feeder  steer.  It 
is  as  impossible  to 
feed  muscle  into  a 
beef  steer  as  to  feed 
butter  fat  into  the 
milk  of  a  dairy  cow. 
Furnished  an  ample 
and  proper  ration, 
they  will  grow  to 
the  limit  of  their 
natural  endowment, 
but  that  is  all.  Fat, 
on  the  other  hand, 


THE  TYPES  195 

will  be  formed  directly  in  accordance  with  the  amount 
of  a  fattening  ration  fed. 

214.  The  type  of  the  feeder  steer  (Fig.  98).  —  Short, 
broad  heads,  wide,  flat  backs,  muscular  necks  and  thighs 
even  though  thin,  sappy  hides,  full  heart  girths  and  lym- 
phatic dispositions  which  render  the  cattle  only  sufficiently 
aggressive  to  get  all  the  ration  due  them,  then  disposed  to 
lie  down  and  grunt  and  grow  are  the  features  upon  which 
the  selection  of  feeders  is  based.     It  is  essential  to  know  the 
fat  steer  which  is  the  feeder's  outcome  before  passing  judg- 
ment upon  the  thin  prospect. 

215.  Method    of    inspection.  —  Beef    cattle    are    first 
viewed  from  in  front,  noting  their  scale,  width  and  low 
station,   then  the  size,  dimensions,  proportions,  contour 
and  features  of  the  head.     Passing  to  the  side  the  lines 
are  observed,  noting  especially  any  sag  in  the  back,  droop 
of  the  rump  or  prominence  at  the  tail  head,  lack  of  fullness 
in  either  crops  or  fore  flank,  trimness  of  under  line,  and 
depth  of  hind  flank ;  then  the  head  in  profile,  the  shortness 
of  the  neck,  fullness  of  the  shoulder  vein,  thickness  and 
character  of  the  covering  over  the  back  and  loin,  on  the 
outside  of  the  shoulder,  in  the  crops,  on  the  mid  rib,  and 
at  the  juncture  of  the  back  and  the  loin,  as  determined  by 
handling,  and  the  length,  levelness  and  smoothness  of  the 
rump,  setting  on  of  the  tail  and  depth  and  fullness  of  the 
hindquarters.     From  the  side  the  hide  is  handled  just  over 
the  back  rib  and  midway  down.     The  rear  view  covers 
the  width  of  the  animal  throughout  and  especially  of  the 
shoulders,  back,  loin,  rump,  thighs  and  twist,  and  the 
fullness,  depth  and  closeness  in  the  seam  of  the  latter. 
The  opposite  side  is  observed  in  the  same  order  as  the 
first.     The  legs  of  a  fat  steer,  ready  for  the  slaughter,  are 
of  little  account. 


196 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


THE  TYPES  197 

Feeders  are  usually  picked  under  conditions  that  permit 
of  only  a  very  general  inspection.  They  are  often  sorted 
as  they  are  run  through  the  alleys,  past  the  mounted 
buyer  who  indicates  which  of  the  two  pens,  accepted  or 
rejected,  they  are  to  be  allotted  to. 

DAIRY  CATTLE 

The  primitive  bovine  female  possessed,  in  common  with 
all  mammals,  the  capacity  to  produce  milk  with  which  to 
nurture  her  young  to  a  self-sustaining  age.  For  this  pur- 
pose she  was  required  to  give  but  a  small  amount,  of 
ordinary  quality,  the  scant  flow  of  which  was  maintained 
by  the  succulent  spring  grasses  whose  growth  was  incident 
to  the  season  at  which  she  invariably  calved. 

The  modern  domesticated  dairy  cow,  on  the  other  hand, 
has  given  annually,  in  record  instances,  milk  equivalent 
in  amount  to  from  25  to  30  times  her  own  weight,  and  so 
rich  in  fat  as  to  yield  more  than  the  equivalent  of  her 
weight  in  butter.  Furthermore,  she  may  be  made  to 
freshen  any  month  in  the  year  and  to  maintain  the  milk 
flow  continuously  for  a  period  of  years  in  some  instances. 
Live-stock  husbandry  offers  no  more  striking  example 
of  the  development  of  a  natural  function  by  means 
of  generations  of  selective  breeding. 

216.  Production.  —  The  function  of  the  dairy  cow  is  to 
furnish,  for  any  ten  months  in  the  year,  milk  in  such  quan- 
tity and  of  such  quality  as  to  return  a  fair  margin  of  profit 
over  the  cost  of  maintenance  of  the  cow  herself  and  the 
additional  expense  of  her  production. 

217.  Dairy  form  and  function.  — The  province  of  the 
dairy  cow  can  be  best  understood  by  considering  her  as  a 
factory,  of  which  the  udder  is  the  essential  machine,  and 
in  this  she  stands  intermediate  between  the  grain  bins 


198  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

and  hay  mows,  as  the  sources  of  the  raw  materials,  and  the 
finished  product  in  the  pail. 

There  is  a  most  distinct  correlation  between  form  and 
function  in  the  dairy  cow;  therefore  a  detailed  con- 
sideration of  each  is  essential  to  the  intelligent  judging 
of  her. 

Milk  is  composed  of  87.1  %  water,  and  12.9  %  solids, 
of  which  .7  %  is  mineral  matter,  3.2  %  casein,  5.1  %  sugar 
and  3.9  %  fat,  the  last  three  constituents  being  products  of 
the  udder,  exclusively.  Hence  the  udder  is  the  final  and 
determining  factor  in  milk  production,  but  its  function  is 
wholly  dependent  upon  allied  and  prerequisite  systems 
and  organs.  These  will  be  taken  up  in  order. 

218.  Dairy   temperament.  —  Since    the   production   of 
beef  and  milk  are  in  no  way  correlated  but  are  extreme 
opposites,  the  primary  factor  in  milk  production  is  the 
absence  of  any  tendency  to  beefiness.      All  the  allied 
functions,  as  well  as  the  secretory  function  of  the  udder 
itself,  are  so  governed  by  the  nervous  system  as  to  insure 
the  most  complete  utilization  of  food  nutrients  exclusively 
for    milk    production,    after    maintenance    requirements 
have  been  met. 

219.  Reproduction.  —  Given    the    capacity    to    divert 
surplus  nutrients  from  the  body  to  the  pail  there  must  be 
furnished    a   motive   for    so    doing.     Although    the    un- 
developed udder  of  the  virgin  heifer  and  even  the  rudi- 
mentary gland  of  the  bull  may  be  stimulated  to  the  actual 
production  of  milk,  yet  the  calf  is  the  only  means  of  bringing 
cows  into  a  state  of  profitable  production.     Under  modern 
methods  of  dairy  husbandry  the  calf  is  commonly  de- 
prived of  that  for  the  production  of  which  he  has  furnished 
the  incentive.     Once  fresh,  a  cow  may  be  kept  milking 
continuously  for  years,  sometimes,  without  the  necessity 


THE  TYPES  199 

I 

of  refreshening,  although  she  is  usually  rebred  so  as  to 
come  in  annually. 

220.  Feeding  capacity.  —  After  being  supplied  with  a 
reason  for  becoming  functionally  active  it  is  necessary 
that   the  udder    be   supplied   with   the   materials   from 
which  to  produce  milk.      This  function  devolves  upon 
the   digestive  system  as  a  source  of   the  nutrients  and 
the  circulatory  system  as  a  means  of  conveyance  to  the 
udder. 

221.  Constitution.  —  In  view  of  the  record  performances 
of  some  cows  it  is  apparent  that  high  production  involves 
the  expenditure  of  an  enormous  amount  of  energy  and 
nerve  force  to  sustain  it.     A  race  horse  is  hardly  required  to 
have  more  stamina  and  constitution  than  a  cow  on  test, 
while  resistance  to  disease  is  of  even  greater  importance 
in  her  case  on  account  of  the  artificial  conditions  under 
which  she  is  kept  producing. 

222.  Udder.  —  The  udder  has  been  referred  to  as  the 
essential  machine  of  the  milk  factory,  —  the  cow.     It 
is  not  a  mere  reservoir  in  which  the  milk  accumulates 
and  from  which  it  is  simply  withdrawn,  but  the  udder 
is  a  gland  with  secretion  as  its  function.    While  the  glandu- 
lar arrangement  does  provide  a  receptacle  for  the  milk 
as  it  is  produced,  secretion  goes  on  most  actively  during 
the  milking  process,  and  is  even  controlled,  within  limits, 
by  the  cow  at  will.     The  active  factors  in  milk  production 
are  the  gland  tissue  cells  which  intervene  between  the 
terminal  capillary  ramifications  of  the  blood  vessels  and 
the  ultimate  divisions  of  the  interior  of  the  udder  (Fig.  99). 
The  water,  salt  and  some  free  albumen  pass  directly  from 
the  blood  into  the  interior  of  the  gland,  but  the  greater  part 
of  the  albumen  undergoes  transformation  in  its  passage 
through  the  cell  and  reappears  as  casein.     Fat  and  lactose 


200 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


may  also  be  considered  the  products  of  the  cell,  since  they 
do  not  appear  in  the  blood.  Fat  is  produced  by  a  special 
secretory  activity  of  the  cell  itself  during  which  its  proto- 


FIG.  99  4.  —  Alveoli  of  the  mammary  gland  of  the  goat  at  the  time  of 
parturition.  Beginning  of  fat  formation,  a,  fat  droplets  in  the  epi- 
thelium ;  b,  division  of  the  nucleus  (daughter  nuclei)  ;  c,  leucocyte 
in  epithelium ;  d,  epithelial  cell  with  protoplasmic  prolongation ; 
e,  alveolar  contents  with  cells ;  /,  free  fat ;  g,  interalveolar  connective 
tissue.  (After  Martin.) 

plasm  undergoes  marked  changes  and  the  characteristic 
globules  of  fat  appear  (Fig.  99A).  This  important  func- 
tion of  the  epithelial  cells  which  line  the  finer  sections  into 
which  the  lumen  of  the  udder  is  divided  can  be  demon- 


THE  TYPES 


201 


strated,  microscopically,  by  comparing  the  appearance  of 
the  active  cells  in  the  secreting  udder  with  those  that  are 
inactive,  in  the  dry  cow  or  the  virgin  heifer  (Fig.  995). 


B 


FIG.  99  B.  —  Alveoli  of  the  mammary  gland  of  goat  at  the  time  of 
parturition,  showing  successive  stages  of  secretion,  a,  epithelium  at 
rest ;  b,  alveolar  content  consisting  of  cells ;  c,  smooth  muscle  cell ; 
d,  connective  tissue;  e,  alveolar  content  consisting  of  coagulated 
•  casein  and  free  fat :  /,  fat  droplets  in  the  epithelial  cells ;  g,  blood 
capillaries.  (After  Martin.) 

223.  Dairy  type  (Figs.  100  and  101) .  —  Since  the  produc- 
tion of  milk  and  beef  are  not  correlated,  the  dairy  form  is 
characterized  by  an  extreme  absence  of  all  that  pertains  to 
beefiness.  The  form  in  general  is  triangular  instead  of  rec- 


202 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


tangular,  outlining  the  so-called  wedges,  the  appearance  of 
which  is  contributed  to  by  the  features  of  structure  already 
enumerated,  the  functions  of  which  are  prerequisite  to  milk 
production.  Both  reproduction  and  milk  production  are 
distinctly  feminine  functions,  hence  femininity  should  domi- 
nate the  make-up  of  a  dairy  cow.  The  feminine  form  is 


FIG.  100.  —  A  typical  dairy  cow. 

characterized  by  a  light,  shallow,  narrow  forequarter  and 
correspondingly  greater  width  and  depth  of  the  hind- 
quarter.  This,  of  itself,  is  suggestive  of  both  a  horizontal 
and  a  perpendicular  wedge,  the  apex  directed  forward 
whether  seen  from  the  side  or  the  front.  The  wedge  or 
triangle  suggestion  is  made  more  pronounced  in  the  profile 
view  by  the  base  of  the  triangle  being  extended  to  the 


THE   TYPES 


203 


lowest  point  of  the  udder  at  which  the  under  line  begins. 
This  line  is  kept  low  at  the  rear  by  a  deep  back  rib  and 
full  flank,  features  of  digestive  capacity,  but  inclines 
gradually  upward  on  account  of  the  absence  of  the  square 
brisket  that  is  characteristic  of  the  beef  type  and  the  male 


FIG.   101.  —  A  typical  dairy  cow,  rear  view. 

and  is,  therefore,  foreign  to  the  dairy  female.  The  very 
lean  neck  and  fine  throttle  complete  this  under  line,  the 
head  being  eliminated  from  consideration.  The  light, 
narrow  shoulder  and  chine  that  is  correlated  with  femininity 
and  the  absence  of  beefiness,  with  the  width  on  the  floor 


204  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

of  the  chest  that  a  cow  must  have  in  order  to  insure  ample 
heart  and  lung  capacity,  are  responsible  for  a  third  tri- 
angle, the  apex  of  which  is  directed  upward  and  is  most 
easily  made  out  when  the  chine  is  looked  down  upon.  A 
fourth,  an  inverted  triangle,  may  be  demonstrated  in  the 
hindquarters.  The  long,  broad,  level  rump  forms  the 
base,  while  the  light  thighs,  concave  from  both  side  and 
rear  view,  form  lines  which,  inclining  downward  and 
inward,  approximate  an  apex.  These  triangles  or  wedges, 
it  should  be  understood,  are  the  effect  rather  than  the 
cause  of  a  cow's  being  productive,  and  mean  little  except 
that  they  represent  capacity  of  the  reproductive,  digestive, 
respiratory,  circulatory  and  nervous  systems  in  a  female 
whose  proclivities  are  most  extremely  opposed  to  beef 
production. 

224.  Conformation.  —  A  long,  narrow  feminine  head 
with  a  straight  face  line,  except  as  altered  by  breed  charac- 
ter ;  a  large,  clear  eye,  with  mild  expression,  yet  indicative 
of  nerve  force ;  forehead  broad  and  flat ;  ears  of  medium 
size,  fine  texture,  set  high  and  well  carried  ;  horns  that  are 
symmetrical  in  size  and  shape,  of  fine  texture,  with  con- 
siderable curvature  to  distinguish  them  from  the  long, 
spreading,  straight  horn  of  the  steer  and  the  short,  heavy 
horn  of  the  bull,  the  size,  shape  and  color  of  the  horn 
being  features  of  breed  character  and  varying  accordingly ; 
the  neck  long  and  lean  in  the  extreme,  showing  concavity 
of  both  top  and  sides  and  a  light,  clean-cut  throat;  the 
shoulders  long,  light,  well  laid  in  and  narrow  on  top ;  the 
forelegs  straight  with  ample  bone ;  the  chine  narrow  and 
light,  its  spines  sharp  and  wide  apart  or  open,  the  foreribs 
deep  and  arched  below ;  the  back  long  and  straight,  with 
no  sag,  the  back  ribs  well  sprung  and  deep;  the  loin 
broad  and  level,  the  flank  deep  but  rather  open ;  the  hips 


THE  TYPES  205 

wide  apart,  prominent,  as  in  an  open  frame,  and  symmetri- 
cal ;  the  rump  long,  level,  broad  and  lean,  the  pin  bones 
wide  apart,  the  tail  head  smooth  and  on  a  line  with  the 
back,  showing  no  droop,  the  tail  long  and  fine  with  ample 
switch ;  the  thighs  long  and  lean,  concave  from  both 
side  and  rear  view,  any  natural  tendency  to  beefiness 


FIG.  102.  — The  points  of  the  cow.  1,  muzzle;  2,  face;  3,  forehead; 
4,  throat;  5,  neck;  6,  dewlap;  7,  shoulders;  8,  wethers;  9,  back; 
9i,  crops;  10,  chine  ;  11,  ribs ;  12,  foreribs ;  12i,  foreflank ;  12,  12i, 
chest ;  13,  belly ;  14,  flank  ;  15,  loin  ;  16,  hips ;  17,  rump  ;  18,  setting 
of  tail;  19,  thurl  or  pin  bone;  20,  quarter;  21,  thigh;  22,  hock; 
23,  switch;  24,  leg;  25,  stifle;  26,  udder;  27,  teat;  28,  forearm; 
29,  knee;  30,  shank;  31,  hoof. 

manifesting  itself  here ;  the  hind  legs  straight  and  strong ; 
these  are  the  points  of  the  productive  dairy  cow . 

Udder.  The  udder  is  considered  last  because  its  effi- 
ciency is  not  independent  but  is  contingent  upon  all  other 
structural  and  functional  features  of  the  cow.  The  three 


206 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


essential  features  of  the  udder  are  its  size,  shape  and  tex- 
ture (Fig.  103).  Size  is  determined  by  its  attachments, 
which  should  be  high  up  between  the  thighs  behind  and  well 
forward  along  the  abdominal  wall  below.  These  attach- 

ments    may    be 

considered  as  the 
basis  of  the  ud- 
der, and  are  a 
reliable  indica- 
tion of  its  real 
size  even  in  the 
dry  cow  or  the 
one  just  milked 
out.  It  should 
not  be  necessary 
to  "stretch"  ud- 
ders in  order  to 
ascertain  their 
size.  The  sus- 
pension from 
these  attach- 
ments should  also 
be  considered. 
A  pendant  udder 
may  have  the 
appearance  of 
being  large,  while 
in  reality  there 
is  less  gland  present  than  in  a  much  smaller  but  well- 
supported  udder.  With  these  points  fixed,  the  shape  of 
the  udder  is  next  concerned  in  establishing  its  capacity. 
The  mammary  gland  is  divisible,  longitudinally,  into  two 
lateral  halves,  also  transversely,  into  an  anterior  and  a 


FIG.  103.  —  Section  of  the  cow's  udder  showing  the 
internal  structure  and  arrangement  of  the  gland. 


THE  TYPES  207 

posterior  or  a  fore  and  hind  half.  Therefore  either  half 
may  be  subdivided  into  quarters.  The  most  capacious 
udder,  size  as  fixed  by  attachments  being  equal,  is  the  one 
in  which  all  four  quarters  are  equally  well  developed,  pro- 
ducing a  square  and  level  shape.  Finally,  even  though  size 
and  shape  of  udder  are  both  good,  there  is  one  more  factor 
that  may  still  determine  great  variation  in  productiveness, 
and  that  is  texture.  The  udder,  like  any  other  gland  of  the 
body,  is  composed  of  two  kinds  of  tissue,  the  gland  tissue 
proper  which  does  the  actual  secreting  of  the  milk,  and  an 
interstitial  connective  tissue  of  a  fibrous  nature  which 
serves  as  a  framework  for  the  gland.  It  is  obvious  that 
the  latter  tissue  has  no  part  in  the  function  of  the  udder, 
although  a  certain  amount  is  necessary  for  the  construc- 
tion of  the  gland.  The  udder  that  is  most  productive, 
therefore,  is  the  one  that  contains  the  most  of  the  active 
glandular  tissue  and  only  as  much  connective  tissue  as  is 
required  to  support  the  gland.  The  relative  proportions 
of  these  two  kinds  of  tissue  in  the  udder  structure  are 
indicated  by  the  feel  of  the  gland ;  if  firm  and  beefy  the 
connective  tissue  is  in  excess,  while  if  soft,  elastic  and  glove- 
like,  being  covered  with  a  thin,  pliable  skin  upon  which  is  a 
light  growth  of  fine  hair  and  the  blood  vessels  are  distinctly 
marked,  the  udder  is  composed  of  the  maximum  amount  of 
gland  tissue  proper  and  is  capable  of  maximum  production. 
Such  an  udder  almost  completely  milks  away,  leaving  only 
a  few  soft  folds  where,  previous  to  milking,  the  udder  had 
completely  filled  the  space  between  the  thighs.  The  former 
kind,  on  the  other  hand,  appears  of  about  the  same  size  and 
shape  after  the  milk  has  all  been  withdrawn. 

Udders  may  be  so  badly  stretched  by  prolonging  the 
periods  between  milkings,  or  cows  may  be  judged  in  such 
varying  stages  of  lactation  that  the  udder  alone  cannot 


208  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

l 

always  be  considered  to  gauge  a  cow's  productive  capac- 
ity. The  mammary  (milk)  veins  and  wells  are  accessories 
which  may  be  valuable  aids  in  determining  the  capacity 
of  an  udder,  especially  if  the  cow  is  not  in  full  milk. 
The  mammary  (milk)  veins  are  the  blood  vessels  which 
carry  the  blood  away  from  the  udder  and  the  wells  are 
the  orifices  in  the  abdominal  wall  through  which  the  veins 


FIG.  104.  —  Section  of  cow's  udder.  G.R.M.,  lymph  gland  of  udder; 
L.p.,  lymphatics  of  hindquarter ;  L.a.,  lymphatics  of  forequarter ; 
L.E.,  lymphatics  leaving  the  udder;  A.M.,  mammary  artery; 
V.M ,,  mammary  vein  ;  V.Ma.,  anterior  mammary  vein ;  C,  trans- 
verse inter-mammary  septum.  (After  Moussu.) 

enter  to  unite  with  the  general  venous  system.  Their 
significance  lies  in  the  fact  that  their  capacity  is  propor- 
tioned to  the  amount  of  blood  which  is  supplied  to  the 
udder,  the  arteries  being  so  deep  seated  as  not  to  be  visible 
(Fig.  104)  .*  A  vein  of  large  caliber  and  tortuous  course 
indicates  a  large  flow  of  blood  to  the  udder,  while  a  small 
vein  passing  directly  from  the  udder  to  its  well  indicates 

1  The  so-called  milk  veins  are  designated,  anatomically,  as  the  anterior 
mammary  veins  to  distinguish  them  from  the  middle  and  posterior  mam- 
mary veins  which  together  drain  the  venous  ring  at  the  base  of  the  udder. 


THE   TYPES  209 

the  opposite.  Since  the  raw  materials  from  which  milk  is 
produced  are  conveyed  to  the  udder  in  the  blood  stream, 
the  relation  between  blood  supply  and  production  is  very 
intimate.  The  size  of  the  wells  corresponds  to  the  size  of 
the  veins  and  the  larger,  more  tortuous  veins  usually 
branch  and  send  small  ramifications  through  smaller  wells, 
the  so-called  extensions,  of  which  there  may  be  two  or  three. 

The  escutcheon,  that  area  on  the  inner,  posterior  face 
of  the  thigh  where  the  hair  is  directed  the  reverse  way, 
was  formerly  believed  to  indicate  the  blood  supply  and 
through  it  the  capacity  of  the  udder.  This  theory  was 
first  advanced  by  Guenon,  a  Frenchman,  but  little  im- 
portance is  attached  to  it  now. 

Teats  should  be  placed  in  the  center  of  the  quarters 
and  if  the  latter  are  of  the  proper  size  and  shape  the  teats 
will  all  be  equidistant  and  directed  straight  downward, 
in  parallel  lines.  They  should  be  of  sufficient  size  to  in- 
sure a  good  grasp  with  a  man's  hand,  short  teats  being  an 
abomination  in  this  country  where  men  milkers  are  most 
common.  The  teats  should  not,  however,  be  so  long  as  to 
render  them  liable  to  be  tramped  upon  by  neighbors  when 
the  cow  is  lying  down  and  the  udder,  with  its  teats,  is 
protruded  sideways.  They  should  be  regular  in  form 
and  tapering.  Supernumerary  teats,  while  they  may 
indicate  extra  development  of  the  mammary  system,  are 
usually  objectionable. 

226.  Quality.  —  Quality  of  cow  and  quality  of  milk  are 
not  correlated,  exactly,  yet  the  refinement  of  structure 
manifested  by  the  cow  may  have  a  direct  bearing  on  pro- 
ductiveness. The  udder  being  composed  of  a  framework 
of  nonsecreting  tissue  and  the  essential  secreting  gland 
tissue  which  it  supports,  the  more  there  is  of  the  latter, 
the  greater  the  capacity  of  the  udder  and  the  finer  its 


210  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

texture.     Quality  implies  a  fine  texture  of  udder  just  as 
much  as  of  hide,  hair  and  bone. 

Quality  in  the  dairy  cow  is  indicated  by  a  hide  of 
medium  thickness,  loose,  pliable  and  unctuous,  covered 
with  a  medium  coat  of  fine,  straight,  lustrous  hair ;  a 
high  grade  of  bone,  noted  in  a  fine  head,  smooth  shoulders, 
hooks,  pins  and  tail  head  and  sharply  defined  joints ; 
horn  of  medium  size,  and  dense,  smooth  texture.  Coarse- 
ness is  especially  indicated  in  the  parts  enumerated  and 
in  a  general  absence  of  refinement. 

226.  Substance,  as  indicated  by  size  rather  than  by 
bone,  is  important,  it  having  been  demonstrated  that  the 
larger  cow  produces  more  economically  than  the  smaller 
one. 

227.  Constitution.  —  The  consumption  and  utilization 
of  the  nutrients  required  for  the  production  of  25,000 
pounds  of  milk  or  1000  pounds  of  butter  annually,  in- 
volves the  activity  of  the  functions  of  digestion,  respira- 
tion, circulation  and  lactation  to  their  utmost  capacity, 
and  none  but  cows  of  the  strongest  constitutional  vigor 
are  capable  of  such  performance.     Constitution  is  indi- 
cated by  a  full  chest,  a  deep  flank,  a  large  nostril,  a 
bright  eye,  a  sleek  coat  and  general  evidence  of  thrift 
and  vigor. 

228.  Condition  of  the  dairy  cow  in  milk  is  best  ex- 
pressed by  the  term   "  spare."     Thin   is   suggestive  of 
emaciation  while  a  working  dairy  cow  is  in  the  best  of 
health  and  thrift.     Spare  means  without  surplus,  and  that 
is  most  descriptive  of  ideal  dairy  cow  condition  when  she 
is  retaining  from  the  fation  sufficient  nutrients  for  her 
maintenance  only,  utilizing  all  the  balance  for  production. 
Lean  is  also  expressive  of  the  dairy  condition,  as  it  implies 
the  absence  of  fat  or  beef.  • 


THE  TYPES  211 

229.  Temperament.  —  The  dairy  cow  is  of  a  nervous 
temperament  compared  to  the  lymphatic  temperament  of 
the  beef  steer.     Resourceful  in  nerve  force,  yet  not  restive, 
is  the  ideal.     Dairy  temperament  is  indicated   by  evi- 
dence of  nerve  force  as  expressed  by  the  eye,  the  absence 
of  any  beefy  tendency,  the  spare  condition  associated 
with    dairy    capacity  and   an  open,    loose-made  frame, 
especially  in  evidence  in  the  chine. 

230.  Dry  cows.  —  One  is  often  called  upon  to  buy  or 
place  cows  after  the  conclusion  of  one  lactation  period, 
and  before  they  have  freshened  again.     It  is  obviously  a 
more  difficult  task  to  rate  them  aright  under  such  condi- 
tions than  when  in  full  milk.     The  higher  condition  which 
they  naturally  acquire  when  not  producing  must  be  dis- 
tinguished from  actual  beefiness,  and  the  inactive  udder 
from  one  of  normally  limited  capacity.     The  fat  cow  will 
show  it  most  over  the  back,  while  the  beefy  cow  is  thick 
in  the  neck  and  thighs  as  well.     The  attachments  of  the 
udder  high  up  behind  and  well  forward,  also  its  texture 
and  balance  may  still  be  made  out,  although  the  form  is 
much  altered  and  the  size  reduced.     The  placing  of  the 
teats  is  a  valuable  guide  in  the  case  of  the  dry  cow  as  well 
as  in  the  heifer. 

231.  Heifer   calves.  —  The  judging  of  young  heifers 
involves  some  features  not  enumerated  in  the  judging  of 
milking  cows.     It  cannot  be  expected  that  the  calf  will 
be  a  "  perfect  little  cow."     Like  the  feeder  steer,  she  is 
the  dairy  cow  in  prospect,  and  must  have  embraced  in 
her  make-up  the  essential  features  of  dairy  form  and  func- 
tion, such  as  a  refined,  feminine  head  and  neck,  a  loose, 
soft,  sappy  hide,  ample  chest  and  abdominal  capacity 
and   a  suggestion  of  milkiness   in  both   fore   and   hind 
quarters  (Fig.  105).     Special  importance  is   attached  to 


212 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


THE   TYPES  213 

the  size  and  placing  of  the  teats,  they  being  about  all 
of  the  mammary  apparatus  that  is  apparent  at  this  age. 
Teats  of  uniform  size,  placed  equidistant  and  well  apart, 
are  indicative  of  a  large,  well-formed  udder  at  maturity. 
Heifers,  like  dry  cows,  are  usually  in  higher  condition 
than  after  calving,  when  their  fat  "  milks  away,"  as  it  is 
commonly  described. 

232.  Method  of  inspection.  —  The  cow  should  be 
viewed  first  from  in  front,  noting  her  feminine  appear- 
ance, her  triangular  wedge  shape  and  size,  then,  more  in 
detail,  the  size,  dimensions,  proportions,  contour  and 
features  of  her  head ;  passing  to  the  side,  observe  again 
the  wedge  form,  outlined  by  her  top  and  under  line,  also 
her  head  in  profile,  her  throat,  the  length  and  leanness  of 
her  neck,  the  lightness  and  the  sharpness  of  her  shoulder 
and  chirie,  tfte  depth  of  her  forerib,the  thickness  through 
the  lower  part  of  her  chest,  the  great  depth  of  back  rib, 
the  width  of  loin  and  hips,  the  length,  levelness,  leanness 
and  smoothness  of  her  rump  and  the  extreme  leanness  of 
her  thighs ;  from  the  side  the  hide  over  the  back  rib  is 
handled  to  determine  its  thickness,  looseness,  pliability, 
the  amount  and  fineness  of  the  hair  and  the  abundance 
and  the  color  of  the  skin  secretions,  these  secretions  being 
also  examined  in  the  ears,  under  the  tail  and  at  the  depth 
of  the  switch.  Also,  from  this  position,  the  size,  form 
and  texture  of  the  udder,  the  size  and  placing  of  the  teats, 
together  with  the  size  and  course  of  the  mammary  veins  and 
wells  may  be  determined.  This  examination  should  be 
continued  from  the  rear  position,  in  which  may  also  be 
made  out  the  inverted,  perpendicular  wedge  of  the  hind- 
quarters, the  width  of  loin,  hips  and  hindquarters,  the 
relative  width  of  hook  bones  and  pin  bones,  the  leanness 
of  thighs,  the  width  between  them  and  finally  the  es- 


214  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

cutcheon,  its  extent  and  form.  The  inspection  is  con- 
cluded by  a  look  at  the  other  side,  noting  again,  as  has 
alrsady  been  done,  the  openness  of  the  form  as  indicated 
in  the  chine  especially,  and  the  general  spare  appearance 
indicative  of  the  dairy  temperament.  It  is  well  to  move 
the  cows  about  in  order  to  verify  or  extend  one's  estimate 
of  them. 

DUAL-PURPOSE  CATTLE 

233.  Production.  —  Cows  of  this  type  are  to  serve  the 
twofold  purpose  of  milk  and  beef.  In  principle  and  theory 
the  dual-purpose  idea  is  subject  to  some  logical  opposition, 
but  the  dual-purpose  cow  is  a  matter  of  fact,  90  %  of  the 
milk  supply  of  London  being  derived  from  milking  Short- 
horns, the  breed  that  also  furnishes  a  large  part  of  the 
beef  consumed  in  Great  Britain.  The  principle  is 
opposed  on  the  ground  that  milk  and  beef  are  extreme 
opposites  under  the  law  of  correlation,  and  therefore  their 
joint  production,  in  the  same  animal,  is  contrary  to  the 
laws  of  nature.  And  so  it  is  if  extreme  production  in  both 
lines  is  attempted,  but  between  any  two  extremes  is  a 
mean,  represented  by  an  intermediate  or  halfway  position. 
It  is,  therefore,  perfectly  reasonable  to  expect  from  one 
individual  the  production  of  milk  to  the  extent  of  one 
half  the  normal  in  dairy  cows,  and  the  production  of  a 
carcass  of  beef  at  least  50  %  as  valuable  and  one  half  as 
economically  produced  as  in  the  case  of  a  typical  beef 
steer.  This  is  all  that  should  be  attempted  and  ap- 
parently all  that  can  be  accomplished  in  the  perfection 
of  the  dual-purpose  cow.  The  great  difficulty  seems  to 
be  that  breeders  are  not  satisfied  to  maintain  this  middle 
ground,  but  are  ambitious  to  make  either  dairy  or  slaughter 
records  with  their  so-called  dual-purpose  cattle.  Even 
the  judging  of  the  leading  dual-purpose  breeds  has  been 


THE   TYPES 


215 


FIG.   106.  —  A  typical  dual-purpose  cow. 

most  inconsistent  on  this  account.  One  judge,  presum- 
ably from  the  Middle  West,  will  lay  special  stress  on  the 
beef  form,  with  an  utter  disregard  for  udders,  while  an 
Eastern  judge  is  just  as  liable  to  place  the  cows  in  the 
order  of  dairy  merit  only. 


216  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

The  half-and-half  principle  is  fundamental,  and  when- 
ever it  is  deviated  from;  the  dual  purpose  is  defeated. 
The  ideal  dual-purpose  cow  is  one  which  will  produce 
milk  of  such  quantity  and  quality  as  to  return  a  profit 
over  and  above  her  cost  of  keep,  and  at  the  same  time 
possess  a  sufficiently  beefy  form  to  insure  her  male  calves 
feeding  satisfactorily  into  acceptable  butcher  cattle,  while 
she  herself  and  her  daughters  will  yield  a  profitable 
carcass  when  their  usefulness  in  the  dairy  is  over. 

Another  difficulty  in  the  way  of  dual-purpose  attain- 
ment on  the  part  of  the  breeder  is  the  fact  that  the  prop- 
osition is  self-limiting.  Many  of  the  best  dual-purpose 
cows  are  bought  up  by  dairymen  who  follow  the  practice 
of  milking  a  cow  only  through  one  milking  period,  then 
turning  her  to  beef  and  the  butcher.  Thus  the  breeding 
value  of  the  best  cows  is  lost,  and  what  calves  there  are 
produced  are  likely  to  have  second-rate  cows  for  their  dams. 

234.  The  dual-purpose  type.  —  The  half-and-half  idea 
also  prevails  in  the  make-up  of  the  dual-purpose  cow 
(Fig.  106).  She  has  considerable  scale,  more  than  is  com- 
mon in  dairy  cows,  her  form  is  less  beefy  than  is  typical 
of  the  steer,  but  more  beefy  than  the  typical  dairy  cow, 
while  she  is  less  milky  in  form  than  the  representative 
dairy  cow,  but  more  milky  than  the  fat  steer.  Her  udder 
will  probably  be  as  large  as  that  of  a  dairy  cow,  but  inferior 
to  it  in  both  form  and  texture.  Heifer  calves  should 
develop  into  the  likeness  of  their  dams,  and  the  bull  calves 
follow  the  same  general  type,  but,  being  males,  they  will 
incline  more  naturally  to  beefiness.  In  practice  it  seems 
to  be  less  difficult  to  get  a  cow  that  will  give  10,000 
pounds  of  milk  annually  and  still  retain  her  beef  form, 
and  make  a  profitable  and  acceptable  carcass,  than  to 
secure  from  her  a  male  calf  that  will  make  a  steer  al- 
together satisfactory  to  either  feeder  or  butcher. 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE 

CATTLE  breeds  may  also  be  classified  according  to  type, 
viz. : 


Beef 


Short-horn 

Jersey 

Hereford 

Guernsey 

Aberdeen-  Angus 

Holstein-Friesian 

Galloway                      Dairv 

Ayrshire 

Polled  Durham 

Brown  Swiss 

Dutch  Belted 

I  Milking  Short-horn 

The  chief  features  by  which  typical  representatives  of 
each  of  the  breeds  may  be  differentiated  are  size,  form, 
character  of  head,  hide  and  color. 

235.  The  Short-horn.  —  This,  the  first  of  the  beef  breeds 
to  be  improved,  and  the  one  to  which  were  devoted  the 
efforts  of  that  select  group  of  eighteenth  century  stock 
men,  who  proved  out  the  theories  of  Bakewell,  and  estab- 
lished the  principles  upon  which  modern  live-stock  hus- 
bandry is  practiced,  is  of  extraordinary  importance  because 
of  the  improvement  wrought  by  it  on  the  common  stock  the 
world  over.  The  representative  Short-horn  (Fig.  107)  is 
essentially  a  beef  animal,  and  unless  specially  qualified 
should  be  so  considered.  (Milking  Short-horns  are  dis- 
cussed in  the  dual-purpose  group.)  Short-horns  may  be 
differentiated  from  the  other  beef  breeds  by  greater  size, 
217 


218 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


the  cows  weighing  1400  to  1600  pounds,  and  the  bulls 
1800  to  2400  pounds ;  a  more  distinctly  rectangular  form, 
especially  marked  at  the  ends,  on  account  of  the  square 
brisket  and  very  long,  broad  and  deep  thighs,  and  a  pro- 
portionately broader  and  flatter  back,  particularly  toward 
the  hindquarters  ;  a  head  full  of  character  and  refinement, 
horns  that  are  short,  medium  fine,  white  and  waxy  in 
appearance  with  black  tips  and  well  curved ;  and  a  hide 


FIG.   107.  —  A  Short-horn  hull. 

of  medium  thickness,  loose,  pliable  and  sappy,  covered 
with  a  heavy  but  mossy  coat  of  hair.  The  Short-horn 
colors  are  red  and  white,  either  one  exclusively  or  both 
in  any  possible  combination,  as  red,  white,  spotted  or 
roan.  The  whites  are  no  longer  discriminated  against, 
nor  are  the  reds  especially  preferred,  while  roan  is  re- 
garded ?,;  the  most  representative  color. 

Typical    Short-horns    should    give    evidence    of    early 


THE  BREEDS   OF  CATTLE 


219 


maturity  and  rapid  fattening,  and  promise  of  dressing  out 
most  profitably  a  high-class  carcass  of  beef.  A  lack  of 
general  conformity  to  the  most  approved  beef  type  is 
sometimes  noticeable  in  this  breed,  some  leggy  individuals 
appearing  in  the  ranks.  Also  rough  hips,  a  drooping 
rump  and  a  tendency  to  accumulate  fat  unevenly  in 
patches  about  the  tail  head  and  the  pin  bones  are  un- 


FIG.   108.  —  A  Polled  Durham  bull. 

desirable  features,   which  breeders  have  endeavored  to 
eliminate. 

236.  Polled  Durham  (Fig.  108).  — This  breed  is  an 
American  derivation  from  a  straight  Short-horn  founda- 
tion, chiefly,  the  majority  of  Polled  Durhams  being  double- 
standard,  and  therefore  entitled  to  full  registration  in 
the  Short-horn  herd  book.  The  aim  of  the  Polled  Dur- 
ham breeders  is  to  duplicate  the  Short -horn  in  all  respects 


220  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

except  the  horns,  and  they  are,  therefore,  judged  on  the 
same  basis. 

237.  The  Hereford.  —  This  breed,  developed  from  a  race 
of  cattle  native  to  Herefordshire,  England,  a  district  noted 
for  its  grassland,  received  mention  as  early  as  1627  for 
being  unusually  economic  and  rapid  producers  of  beef, 
characters  for  which  the  breed  is  still  most  noted.  They 
have  the  reputation,  in  this  country,  of  meeting,  excep- 


FIQ.  109.  — A  Hereford  bull. 

tionally  well,  the  conditions  of  our  southwestern  range 
country  where  beef  is  made  from  grass  and  frequently 
under  most  adverse  climatic  conditions,  such  as  drought. 
Herefords  are  also  conspicuous  in  the  feed  lots  of  the 
Middle  West. 

There  is  a  striking  uniformity  among  the  best  represent- 
atives of  the  Hereford  breed  (Fig.  109),  especially  in  the 
matter  of  color.  They  are  among  the  heaviest  of  beef 


THE  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE         221 

cattle,  although,  being  unusually  low  and  blocky,  they  do 
not  appear  to  possess  as  much  actual  scale  as  Short-horns 
do.  The  form  is  less  square  and  more  cylindrical  than  that 
of  the  Short-horns,  their  thighs  being  full  and  rounded, 
rather  than  straight.  The  head  is  short  and  broad, 
eyes  prominent,  the  skin  about  the  eyes  and  the  muzzle 
being  flesh-colored ;  the  horns  are  rather  strong,  cream- 
colored,  with  no  black  at  the  tips,  spreading,  and  in  bulls 
directed  forward  with  a  characteristic  droop.  The  hide 
is  somewhat  heavy,  but  loose  and  pliable,  and  covered 
with  an  abundant  coat  of  long,  curly  but  soft  and  fine 
hair,  which  covers  the  forehead  in  heavy  curls  and  hangs 
in  locks  from  the  ears.  The  color,  while  originally  the 
cause  of  much  dissension  among  Hereford  breeders,  has 
become  a  most  distinct  and  characteristic  feature.  Other 
breeds  are  red  and  white,  but  the  distribution  of  the 
white  in  the  Hereford  is  most  regular.  The  face,  usually 
including  the  ears,  jaws  and  throat,  is  white,  evidence  of 
the  old  mottled  faces  being  noticeable  sometimes  in  red 
spots  about  the  eyes ;  the  under  side  of  the  neck,  the  dew 
lap,  the  brisket,  more  or  less  of  the  under  line,  the  legs 
and  the  switch  are  also  white,  and,  most  curious  of  all, 
there  is  a  clear-cut  white  stripe  on  top  of  the  neck  from 
about  its  middle  to  the  top  of  the  shoulders.  The  balance 
of  the  neck,  body  and  legs  are  red,  either  of  light,  medium 
or  dark  shade,  the  medium  being  preferred.  On  account 
of  the  regularity  with  which  these  white  markings  occur,, 
the  Herefords  are  popularly  known  as  "  White  Faces." 

238.  The  Aberdeen-Angus.  —  Two  distinct  races  of 
polled  cattle  have  existed  in  Scotland  since  the  earliest 
times  of  which  we  have  record,  one  in  northeastern  Scot- 
land, which  was  later  evolved  into  our  modern  Aberdeen- 
Angus,  and  the  other  in  southwestern  Scotland,  the  ante- 


222 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


cedents  of  the  Galloways.  The  hornless  cattle  of  north- 
eastern Scotland,  the  best  of  which  were  black,  first 
attracted  attention  on  account  of  the  superior  carcasses  of 
beef  which  they  dressed  out.  Their  pioneer  breeder  was  a 
cattle  buyer,  who  early  appreciated  their  butcher  value 
and  bred  for  improvement  along  that  line.  Partisans  of 
the  breed  to-day  assign  to  them  first  rank  among  butcher 


FIG.  110. —  An  Aberdeen- Angus  bull. 

beasts  as  attested  by  actual  competition  in  slaughter  tests 
to  which  they  refer.  Aberdeen-Angus  cattle  do  possess  a 
fineness  of  bone,  a  wealth  of  natural  flesh,  a  capacity  to 
finish  evenly  and  smoothly  with  a  resultant  splendid 
marbling  of  the  lean,  which  is  distinctive  of  them. 

Angus  cattle  (Fig.  110)  are  heavy  on  account  of  their 
compact  build,  but  they  are  not,  as  a  rule,  as  large  as 
either  Short-horns  or  Herefords.  Their  form  is  most 


THE  BREEDS   OF  CATTLE  223 

characteristic ;  they  are  extremely  short-legged  and  have 
a  distinctly  cylindrical  contour,  being  compact,  rotund 
and  smooth.  Their  naturally  fine  frame  is  amplified  by 
an  unusual  muscular  system,  which  leaves  no  angles  or 
points  in  their  outline.  The  head  is  also  readily  dis- 
tinguished from  the  head  of  other  polled  cattle.  The 
forehead  is  especially  broad  between  the  eyes,  tapering 
distinctly  from  that  point  to  the  muzzle  below,  and  upward 
to  the  pole,  which  is  prominent,  and  sharply  defined.  The 
hide  is  of  medium  thickness,  very  mellow  and  covered 
with  a  good  coat  of  thick,  but  soft  and  short  hair.  Com- 
pared with  the  rough  coats  of  the  other  beef  breeds,  the 
Angus  coat  is  smooth.  The  color  should  be  black  with 
no  reddish  or  brindle  cast,  as  was'  common  among  some  of 
the  foundation  animals  of  the  breed.  White  on  the  under 
line  back  of  the  navel  is  permissible,  but  undesirable. 

Heavy  open  shoulders,  scurs,  the  occurrence  of  red  or 
brindle  color,  or  too  much  white  are  characters  which 
Angus  breeders  guard  against. 

239.  The  Galloway.  —  Although  the  oldest  and  purest 
of  the  beef  breeds,  the  Galloway  cattle  are  the  last  to  be 
bred  for  systematic  improvement,  and  results  have  been 
most  marked  during  the  past  decade.  They  have  done 
best  in  this  country  on  the  northwestern  ranges,  where 
their  protective  coats,  hardihood  and  rustling  ability 
have  enabled  them  to  do  well  under  most  rigorous  con- 
ditions. 

While  both  are  black  and  polled,  the  breed  characters 
of  the  Galloway  and  Angus  are  not  difficult  to  distinguish. 
Galloways  (Fig.  Ill)  average  lighter  in  weight  than  the 
representatives  of  the  other  beef  breeds  described.  Their 
form  is  less  cylindrical  than  the  Angus  or  Hereford,  hav- 
ing more  of  the  square  outline  of  the  Short-horn,  but 


224 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


with  less  breadth  and  thickness.  The  head  is  somewhat 
longer  than  that  of  the  Angus,  but  is  of  more  uniform 
width,  not  tapering  to  the  muzzle  nor  to  the  poll,  but 
broad  at  the  crown  with  an  oval-shaped,  rather  than  a 
high-pointed,  poll.  The  ears  are  carried  in  a  peculiar 
fashion  characteristic  of  this  breed.  They  are  set  well 
forward  and  high,  and  may  be  pointed  upward  and  for- 


Fic; 


—  A  Galloway  bull. 


ward.  The  hide  is  of  medium  thickness,  loose  and  pliable, 
and  covered  with  a  coat  of  hair  which  furnishes  one  of 
the  most  distinctive  characters  of  the  breed.  The  coat  is 
really  double,  a  soft,  fine,  mossy  or  furry  under  coat  being 
overlaid  with  a  long,  curly,  heavy  hair  coat,  which  gives 
them  an  extremely  shaggy  appearance  with  a  heavy  mat 
of  curls  on  the  forehead  and  locks  in  the  ears.  Hides  taken 
when  the  cattle  are  in  full  coat  sell  at  a  premium  on 


THE  BREEDS   OF  CATTLE  225 

account  of  their  value  for  coats,  robes,  rugs,  etc.  The 
color  of  the  Galloway  is  black  with  a  peculiar  cinnamon 
tinge,  especially  noticeable  in  the  under  coat  and  the 
coat  of  new-born  calves  in  which  it  predominates.  Any 
white  on  the  extremities  or  above  the  under  line  is  ob- 
jectionable. 

The  first  Galloways  brought  forward  in  this  country 
were  very  rough,  unsymmetrical  individuals,  especially 
deficient  in  spread  of  rib,  and  slow  to  mature  and  ripen. 
Some  individuals  of  the  breed  still  show  deficiencies  in 
these  respects  in  spite  of  the  great  improvement  that  has 
been  wrought.  Prominent  tail  heads,  heavy  shoulders, 
with  a  disproportionate  height  between  fore  and  hind 
quarters,  forequarters  being  low,  flat  ribs  and  an  absence 
of  condition  are  respects  in  which  the  breed  is  still  subject 
to  some  correction.  Too  much  white  and  the  presence 
of  scurs  will  also  count  against  Galloways. 

240.  The  Jersey.  —  A  definite  scale  of  points  having 
been  formulated  and  agreed  upon  by  the  Island  breeders 
as  early  as  1835,  since  which  time  great  care  has  been 
taken  to  keep  the  blood  lines  pure,  Jerseys  are  very  uni- 
form in  breed  type  and  character  (Fig.  112).  Cows 
weigh  800  to  1000  pounds,  bulls  1200  to  1500  pounds. 
Their  form  is  especially  symmetrical,  although  distinctly 
dairy,  and  shows  great  refinement.  The  head  is  short, 
broad  and  deep,  the  face  lean  and  distinctly  dished  be- 
tween the  eyes,  the  eyes  wide  apart  and  unusually  prom- 
inent, ears  small,  fine  and  showing  rich  yellow  secretion 
within,  the  muzzle  black  or  dark  blue  surrounded  by  a 
light,  mealy  colored  strip  of  hair  and  skin,  the  horns 
small,  fine,  white,  sharply  incurving,  waxy  in  appearance 
and  usually  black  tipped.  The  skin  is  thin,  loose,  mellow, 
yellow  in  color,  showing  an  abundance  of  rich  secretion 
Q 


226 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


and  covered  with  a  very  fine,  smooth  coat  of  hair.  Fawn 
is  the  typical  Jersey  color,  ranging  from  the  lightest  lemon 
to  the  very  dark  or  mulberry  fawn.  The  darker  colors  are 
preferred  on  bulls.  The  presence  of  much  white  is  gener- 
ally considered  objectionable  in  this  country,  although  it 
is  not  mentioned  in  the  scale  of  points,  and  some  of  the 
most  meritorious  animals  of  the  breed  have  been  spotted. 


FIG.  112.  —  A  Jersey  cow. 

Registry  rules  require  that  account  be  taken  of  the  color 
of  the  tongue  and  the  switch,  whether  light  or  dark. 

The  typical  udder  is  characterized  especially  by  its 
good  texture  and  shape,  size  being  commendable  also 
when  the  size  of  the  cow  is  considered.  The  teats  are  not 
large,  but  are  well  placed,  and  the  veins  are  especially  well 
developed,  being  very  tortuous  in  their  course,  knotted 
in  appearance  and  entering  the  abdominal  cavity  through 
large  and  usually  several  openings. 


THE  BREEDS   OF  CATTLE  227 

Some  Jerseys  manifest  a  tendency  to  be  undersized, 
too  fine  in  bone  and  deficient  in  constitutional  vigor. 
Their  udders  are  also  sometimes  too  small,  not  well 
balanced  in  front  and  with  teats  that  are  too  short. 

Distinction  is  usually  made  in  this  country  between 
the  Island  and  the  American  bred  types  of  Jerseys.  The 
former  is  characterized  by  much  more  symmetry  and 


FIG.  113.  —  A  Guernsey  cow. 

refinement,   while  the  latter  are  cattle  of  greater  size, 
more  rugged  appearance  but  of  less  uniform  type. 

241.  The  Guernsey.  —  While  also  native  to  one  of  the 
Channel  Islands  and  derived  practically  from  the  same 
foundation,  the  Guernsey  differs  in  many  essentials  from 
the  Jersey  (Fig.  113).  They  were  not  bred  for  points  nor 
were  such  early  efforts  put  forth  to  render  them  especially 
productive.  They  are,  therefore,  larger  and  plainer,  of 


228  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

more  substantial  appearance,  the  cows  weighing  about 
1000  and  the  bulls  1500  pounds ;  their  form  is  indicative 
of  dairy  capacity,  but  is  less  symmetrical  and  refined  and 
shows  greater  variation  than  that  of  the  Jersey.  The  head 
is  longer,  with  a  comparatively  straight  face  line,  no  dish, 
although  the  orbits  are  raised  with  unusual  prominence ; 
the  muzzle  is  flesh  or  cream  colored,  a  smutty  appearance 
not  being  permitted,  and  the  horns  are  medium  sized, 
amber  colored  and  symmetrically  shaped.  The  skin 
affords  one  of  the  most  striking  features  of  Guernsey 
breed  type  in  its  rich,  yellow  color  and  the  abundance  of 
its  highly  colored  secretions.  This  color  is  manifested 
wherever  the  skin  is  denuded  of  hair,  as  about  the  eyes, 
under  the  tail,  on  the  udder  and  teats  and  even  in  the 
appendages  of  the  skin,  as  the  horns  and  the  hoof, 
which  are  also  of  the  deep  amber  hue.  Guernseys  are 
most  commonly  of  a  reddish  fawn  shade,  broken  by  a 
considerable  amount  of  white,  although  solid  colors  of 
other  shades  of  fawn  are  not  rare.  The  udder  of  the 
Guernsey  cow  is  of  good  size,  shape  and  texture  with  large 
teats,  and  veins  to  correspond.  The  lack  of  uniformity 
in  shape  already  referred  to  in  the  description  of  the  cows 
is  even  more  noticeable  in  their  udders,  fore  udders 
especially  being  deficient,  with  all  four  quarters  cut  up  in 
many  individuals. 

242.  The  Holstein-Friesian.  —  This  lowland  race  of 
dairy  cattle  reflect  in  their  great  size,  their  open  frame 
and  their  enormous  capacity  both  to  consume  and  to 
produce,  the  environment  under  which  they  have  been 
developed. 

They  are  much  the  largest  of  any  of  the  dairy  breeds 
(Fig.  114),  the  cows  weighing  from  1200  to  1500  pounds 
and  the  bulls  2000  pounds  or  over.  They  have  a  most  ca- 


THE  BBEEDS   OF  CATTLE  229 

pacious  but  milky  form,  frequently  standing  on  longer  legs 
than  representatives  of  the  other  dairy  breeds.  The  head 
is  the  longest  and  leanest  of  any,  with  comparatively  small 
fine  horns ;  the  skin  is  of  medium  thickness,  loose  and 
pliable,  showing  an  abundance  of  highly  colored  secretion 


FIG.  114.  —  A  Holstein-Friesian  cow. 

and  covered  with  a  coat  of  soft  hair.  The  color  is  black 
and  white,  more  or  less  of  either.  Red  and  white,  while 
not  uncommon  in  Holland,  is  not  acceptable  to  the  registry 
association  in  this  country. 

The  udder  of  the  representative  Holstein-Friesian  is 


230  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

very  large  and  voluminous  in  accordance  with  its  pro- 
ductive capacity,  which  in  quantity  surpasses  any.  The 
veins  are  also  large  and  tortuous  and  the  tteats  match  the 
udder  in  size. 

Some  Holstein-Friesians  are  deficient  in  dairy  tempera- 
ment, showing  a  disposition  to  be  beefy.  Also  heavy 
hides,  drooping  rumps,  too  pendant  udders,  which  in 


FIG.   115.  —  An  Ayrshire  cow. 

addition  may  be  beefy  or  badly  cut  up  between  the 
quarters,  and  unsymmetrical  teats  should  be  discriminated 
against. 

243.  The  Ayrshire.  —  Representatives  of  this  breed, 
created  by  the  Scottish  tenant  farmer  under  conditions 
that  called  for  thrift  and  hardihood,  are  of  medium  size, 
cows  weighing  1000  pounds,  bulls  1500  or  more.  Their 
form  is  the  most  symmetrical  of  any  of  the  dairy  breeds 


THE  JiBEEDS   OF  CATTLE  231 

I 

(Fig.  115),  although  it  shows  much  less  refinement  than 
the  Jersey,  and  Ayrshire  cattle  are  of  very  uniform  type. 
They  lack  some  of  the  angularity  which  characterizes  the 
dairy  breeds,  although  the  most  typical  individuals  give 
no  suggestion  of  beefiness.  They  are  more  short  legged 
and  compact  in  body  than  is  usual  in  dairy  cows.  The 
Ayrshire  head  is  very  characteristic ;  it  is  of  medium 
length  and  width,  not  especially  fine,  but  surmounted 
with  long,  strong,  symmetrical,  white  horns  inclining 
generally  upward,  forward  and  outward  with  consid- 
erable spread,  and  a  peculiar  backward  turn  at  the  tips. 
The  hide  is  of  medium  thickness,  mellow  and  pliable, 
the  secretions  of  a  rich  yellow  or  brownish  color  and  the 
hair  coat  fairly  heavy  but  fine.  The  most  typical  Ayr- 
shire color  is  white  and  a  peculiar  red  with  a  brownish 
cast  (wine  colored).  The  old-fashioned  Ayrshire  was 
more  often  red  with  white  spots,  while  the  more  approved 
type  now  is  white  with  red  spots.  The  red  is  sometimes 
brindled,  but  this  is  undesirable. 

The  udder  of  the  Ayrshire  is  one  of  its  most  distinctive 
features.  In  shape,  especially  in  fore  udder  development, 
and  in  texture  it  is  unsurpassed,  while  its  size  is  greater 
than  at  first  apparent,  on  account  of  the  snug  manner  in 
which  it  is  suspended  against  the  abdominal  wall.  The 
teats  are  rather  short  but  well  placed,  the  floor  of  the 
udder  being  remarkably  level,  on  account  of  the  even 
development  of  all  four  quarters.  Short  teats  are  the 
charge  most  frequently  brought  against  this  breed, 
although  some  udders  do  not  have  sufficient  capacity  and 
some  cows  are  undersized. 

244.  The  Brown  Swiss.  —  This  breed  is  descendant 
from  a  very  old  race  of  cattle  in  the  mountains  of  Switzer- 
land. They  have  been  generally  considered  a  dual- 


232 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


purpose  breed,  but  in  order  to  encourage  dairy  production 
the  Brown  Swiss  Cattle  Breeders'  Association  have  de- 
clared them  a  dairy  breed. 

They  are  of  medium  size,  bulls  averaging  about  1800 
pounds  in  weight,  cows  1200  pounds  (Fig.  116).  Their 
form  is  characterized  by  a  prominence  of  frame,  as  shown 


FIG.  116.  —  A  Brown  Swiss  cow. 

in  the  bone  of  the  head,  shoulders  and  cannons.  They  are 
lower  set  and  less  angular  than  the  other  dairy  breeds. 
The  head  is  long,  broad  and  dished  between  the  eyes, 
the  horns  rather  short  and  flat,  directed  outward  and  up- 
ward with  black  tips.  The  hide  is  of  more  than  usual  thick- 
ness, but  soft  and  pliable.  Color  is  a  peculiar  shade  of 
brown  or  brownish  fawn,  varying  from  light  to  dark, 
with  a  light  tuft  at  the  poll,  inside  the  ears  and  along  the 


TEE  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE  233 

back,  a  mealy  colored  muzzle,  black  nose,  tongue  and 
switch.  The  udder  is  of  good  size,  with  large,  well-placed 
teats. 

Coarseness  of  bone  in  head  and  shoulders,  and  an  inclina- 
tion to  be  beefy  are  rather  uniformly  noted  in  this  breed. 
-  245.  The  Dutch  Belted  (Fig.  117).  — Of  Dutch  origin, 
but  selected  for  the  distinctive  color  markings,  the  Dutch 


FIG.   117.  — A  Dutch  Belted  cow. 

Belted  cattle  are  smaller  than  the  Holsteins,  cows  weigh- 
ing from  900  to  1300  pounds,  and  bulls  up  to  2000  pounds. 
They  are  of  well-marked  dairy  form ;  heads  are  long  and 
slightly  dished,  with  long,  fine,  spreading  horns,  and  dark 
tongues.  Color  is  most  distinctive,  being  black  with  a 
clearly  defined  white  belt  passing  completely  around  the 
body,  wide  enough  to  just  miss  the  shoulders  in  front 
and  the  hips  behind,  and  showing  no  irregularities  in 
outline.  The  udders  are  of  good  size  and  well  developed. 


234  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

Having  been  selected  especially  for  the  characteristic 
belt,  there  is  not  the  same  improvement  shown  in  this  as 
in  the  other  dairy  breeds. 

DUAL  PURPOSE 

246.  The  Red  Polled  (Fig.  118).  —  This  breed,  founded 
in  a  combination  of  the  dairy  qualities  of  the  old  Suffolk 


FIG.  118.  — A  Red  Polled  cow. 

and  the  beef  propensities  of  the  Norfolk  stock,  is  charac- 
terized by  a  uniformly  red  color,  polled  head  and  the 
capacity  to  produce  milk  in  large  quantity  and  yet  retain 
the  beef  form  in  fair  degree.  They  weigh  1200  to  1500 
pounds  for  cows,  1800  to  2000  pounds  for  bulls.  The  form 
is  that  of  the  dual-purpose  type.  The  head  is  of  medium 
width,  dished  between  the  eyes  and  well  finished  with  a 


THE  BREEDS   OF  CATTLE 


235 


prominent  poll.  The  hide  is  loose,  mellow  and  pliable 
even  though  of  medium  thickness,  and  the  hair  coat  is 
fine,  though  abundant.  The  color  is  some  shade  of  red, 
the  cherry  red  being  preferable  to  either  the  lighter  or  the 
darker  shades.  White  is  permissible  in  the  switch,  on 
the  udder  or  along  the  under  line  as  far  as  the  navel  only. 
The  udder  is  usually  well  developed  for  so  beefy  a  cow, 
but  it  lacks  balance,  the  forequarters  frequently  being 


119.  —  A  Milking  Short-horn  cow. 


deficient,  and  it  is  often  of  the  pendant  sort  with  large 
teats.  The  veins  and  wells  are  proportionately  well 
developed. 

The  tendency,  already  noted,  for  dual-purpose  cattle 
to  deviate  to  one  or  the  other  extremes  is  responsible  for 
a  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  type  of  the  Red  Polled.  They 


236  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

are  also  subject  to  the  occasional  occurrence  of  scurs,  as 
are  all  other  polled  breeds. 

247.  The  Milking  Short-horn  (Fig.  119).  — This  is  a 
family  within  the  breed,  there  being  a  rather  sharp  dis- 
tinction between  the  blood  lines  of  Milking  Short-horns 
and  the  regular  or  beef  Short-horns.  The  former  are 
largely  descendant  from  a  Bates  foundation.  They  have 
the  general  Short-horn  character  but  more  of  a  dual- 
purpose  form. 


PART  V 
JUDGING  SHEEP 


237 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  TYPES  OF  SHEEP 

FLOCKS  of  domesticated  sheep,  Ovis,  species  musimon, 
or  ammon,  are  referred  to  in  the  very  earliest  records  of 
husbandry.  They  were  kept,  however,  for  their  fleeces, 
the  evolution  of  the  mutton  sheep  having  been  accom- 
plished at  a  comparatively  recent  date  by  the  English  hus- 
bandmen contemporary  with  or  subsequent  to  Bakewell. 

Sheep,  being  ruminants,  have  an  economic  importance 
similar  to  that  of  cattle  but  they  fit  into  a  niche  which 
cattle  do  not  fill.  Sheep  are  much  better  rustlers,  con- 
sume many  weeds  and  grasses  which  cattle  refuse,  graze 
closer,  and  therefore  do  fairly  well  on  rough,  unproduc- 
tive lands,  where  cattle  could  not  subsist.  They  are  also 
natural  gleaners  and  much  that  would  otherwise  be  waste, 
in  stubble  fields,  may  be  saved  by  turning  in  sheep. 
Then  they  have  the  advantage  of  maturing  and  reproduc- 
ing at  an  earlier  age  than  cattle. 

The  prevailing  high  price  of  beef  has  materially  increased 
the  consumption  of  mutton.  This  and  the  low  price  of 
wool  have  resulted  in  a  much  better  grade  of  mutton 
being  offered  to  the  consumer.  Sheep  are  now  much  more 
generally  mutton  bred,  fed  to  a  higher  degree  of  ripeness 
and  sold  as  lambs  or  yearlings. 

248.  Types  of  sheep.  —  While  every  sheep  may  yield 
both  a  mutton  carcass  and  a  fleece  the  two  products  are 
not  correlated,  and  both  are,  therefore,  seldom  secured,  in 


240  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

equally  high  degrees  of  excellence,  from  the  same  individual. 
As  a  rule,  the  sheep  with  the  best  mutton  carcass  shears  a 
comparatively  poor  fleece,  while  the  sheep  that  grows  the 
greatest  amount  of  finest  wool  is  not  wholly  acceptable 
to  the  butcher,  dressing  out,  with  excessive  waste,  a  light, 
ill-shaped  carcass  of  low  quality  mutton.  Hence,  there 
are  two  distinct  types  of  sheep,  one  grown  for  its  carcass, 
in  whose  case  the  wool  constitutes  a  by-product,  and  the 
other,  kept  primarily  for  its  fleece  and  having  a  butcher 
value  analogous  to  that  of  the  dairy  cow.  Sheep  of  the 
former  type  are  in  the  majority,  however,  even  their 
fleeces  supplying  the  bulk  of  the  wool  that  is  marketed. 
It  is  not  profitable  under  present  conditions  to  maintain 
flocks  for  their  fleeces  only,  as  used  to  be  extensively 
practiced. 

MUTTON  SHEEP 

The  mutton  wether  is  as  close  an  analogy  for  the  beef 
steer,  already  described,  as  it  is  possible  for  a  sheep  to  be. 
Mutton  and  beef  may  be  regarded  as  contemporaneous 
before  the  meat  eaters  of  the  world. 

249.  Production.  —  Nearly  all  of  the  mutton  dressed 
is  consumed  fresh,  therefore  primeness  in  the  carcass  is 
especially  desirable.  On  account  of  their  lesser  size, 
mutton  carcasses  are  most  commonly  handled  entire  by 
the  wholesaler,  neither  split  into  sides  nor  quartered,  as 
in  the  case  of  beef.  Preference  for  lamb  is  shown  in 
this  country  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  a  sheep  carcass 
of  any  other  age.  From  two  thirds  to  three  fourths  of  all 
the  sheep  slaughtered  here  are  lambs,  while  the  Briton 
appreciates,  as  well,  the  flesh  of  a  prime  yearling  wether. 
Lamb  can  be  distinguished  from  mutton  by  the  relative 
sizes  of  the  carcasses,  by  the  softer  consistence  of  both 


FIG.   120. —  Mutton  carcass  cuts.     1,  2,  saddle;  3,  4,  5,  rack;   1,  2,  3, 
long  saddle;  2,  3,  4,  5,  body.    1,  leg;  2,  loin;  3,  short  rack;  2,  3, 
back;  4,  breast;  5,  chuck;  4,  5,  stew.      (Illinois  Bulletin  147.) 
R  241 


242  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

lean  and  fat,  a  somewhat  lighter  color  and  the  incomplete 
ossification  of  the  so-called  "  break "  joints  of  the  knees 
and  hocks,  viz.,  the  union  between  the  centers  of  ossifica- 
tion in  the  end  and  the  shaft  of  the  forearm  and  lower 
thigh  bones,  respectively.  The  division  of  the  carcass  is 
shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram  (Fig.  120). 

250.  The  mutton  carcass  cuts  (Fig.  120).  —  The  mutton 
carcass  is  not  usually  split  at  first  but  instead  is  divided 
into  two  transverse  halves,  a  saddle  and  a  rack,  the  cut 
being  made  between  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  ribs.     The 
posterior  or  back  half,  the  saddle,  is  subsequently  divided 
into  the  leg  of  mutton  and  the  loin,  the  forward  half  or 
rack  into  the  short  rack,  stew  and  breast. 

251.  The  saddle,  which  weighs  slightly  less   than  the 
rack,  is  cut  at  the  point  of  the  hip  or  margin  of  the  loin 
into  the  legs  of  mutton,  which  are  afterward  separated 
and  trimmed,  and  the  loin,  the  former  being  about  twice 
as  heavy  as  the  latter. 

262.  The  rack,  counting  forward  ten  ribs  from  the 
saddle  end,  is  cut  between  the  second  and  third  ribs. 
The  upper  part  of  this  section  of  the  rack  constitutes  the 
short  rack,  the  lower  part  the  breast,  the  line  of  division 
being  more  or  less  arbitrarily  determined,  as  in  the  steer. 
The  short  rack  represents  from  two  thirds  to  three  fourths 
the  value  of  the  rack,  although  but  about  two  fifths  its 
weight.  The  balance  of  the  carcass,  including  and  in 
front  of  the  second  rib,  is  the  chuck,  or  shoulder  and, 
with  the  breast,  is  designated  the  stew. 

The  highest  priced  cuts  are  taken  from  the  short  rack 
(rib  chops),  the  leg  of  mutton,  the  loin  (loin  chops)  and 
the  stew,  in  the  order  named.  Sheep  dress  45-63%  of 
their  live  weight,  yearlings  averaging  a  higher  percentage 
than  lambs. 


THE  TYPES   OF  SHEEP 


243 


253.  The  mutton  type  is  simply  the  block  standard 
applied  to  sheep  (Fig.  121).  The  low-set,  wide,  deep, 
symmetrical  individual  is  the  one  that  does  best  for  both 
butcher  and  feeder,  furnishing  the  highest  percentage  of 


FIG.    121.  —  A  typical  mutton  wether. 

the  most  desirable  parts  of  the  carcass  with  least  waste 
in  killing  to  the  former,  and  insuring,  to  the  latter, 
most  economic  production  of  such  an  acceptable  butcher 
carcass. 


244 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


264.  Conformation  (Fig.  122) .  —  Head  short,  broad  and 
deep,  a  large,  full,  dear  eye,  broad  muzzle,  large  nostril, 
fine,  well-shaped  ears,  nicely  poised  and  carried.  The  size 
and  shape  of  the  head  also  whether  covered  with  wool  or 
hair,  and  the  carriage  of  the  ears  is  a  matter  which  involves 
the  breed  as  does  also  the  presence  or  absence  of  horns. 
The  horns  of  the  horned  breeds  should  be  strong,  or  fine, 
depending  upon  sex,  of  good  texture  and  symmetrical  in 


FIG.  122.  —  Points  of  the  sheep.  1,  head;  2,  neck;  8,  shoulder  vein; 
4,  shoulder;  5,  brisket;  6,  foreleg;  7,  chest;  8,  ribs;  9,  top  of 
shoulder;  10,  back;  11,  loin;  12,  hip;  13,  rump;  14,  tail ;  15,  giggot 
or  leg  of  mutton;  16,  hind  leg;  17,  flank;  18,  belly;  19,  foreflank ; 
20,  twist. 

size  and  shape.  The  neck  desired  is  short,  thick  just 
back  of  the  poll  and  begins  there  to  swell  into  the  width 
of  the  shoulders,  being  especially  full  in  the  neck  vein. 
Typical  shoulders  are  broad,  not  prominent,  but  closely 
laid  in,  and  well  covered  with  flesh,  both  at  the  side,  where 
they  are  apt  to  be  bare,  and  over  the  top,  where  they  are 
often  too  open,  that  is,  having  too  much  space  between 
the  tips  of  the  shoulder  blades  and  the  spine ;  the  back 


THE   TYPES   OF  SHEEP  245 

straight,  strong,  broad  and  especially  thickly  covered 
with  flesh ;  the  ribs  well  arched  and  deep,  especially  the 
forerib,  the  crops  so  well  filled  as  to  be  even  with  the 
sides  of  the  shoulders ;  the  chest  deep,  full,  broad  on  the 
floor,  and  square  at  the  brisket ;  the  loin  broad,  and 
thickly  fleshed,  this  region  being  most  frequently  bare; 
the  hips  broad,  level,  smooth  and  not  too  prominent ;  the 
rump  long,  level,  bro'ad  and  smooth,  especially  at  the 
dock,  where  there  may  be  an  accumulation  of  blubbery 
tallow ;  the  leg  of  mutton  broad,  deep  and  thick,  the 
twist  full  and  well  let  down  in  the  seam ;  the  legs  short, 
straight,  pasterns  and  hocks  strong,  the  sheep  standing 
well  up  on  its  toes,  and  having  straight  hind  legs. 

255.  Quality  in   the   sheep   not   only   determines   the 
quality  of  the  meat,  as  in  the  case  of  cattle  and  hogs,  but 
of  the  fleece  as  well.     It  is  also  an  important  factor  in 
dressing  percentage,  as  it  controls  the  waste  to  a  consider- 
able extent.     Quality  is  indicated  by  a  refined  head  and 
ears,  smooth  shoulders  and  hips,  clean-boned  joints  and 
cannons,  fine  hair  on  the  face,  ears  arid  legs,  fine  fleece  and 
a  trim  under  line. 

256.  Condition.  —  Fat  contributes  to  the  primeness  of 
a  cut  of  mutton  or  lamb  about  as  much  as  it  does  to  beef, 
although    the    mutton    carcass,    while    somewhat    fatter, 
does  not  naturally  marble  quite  so  nicely  as  the  beef 
carcass  does,  and  tallow  is  less  nutritious,  digestible  and 
palatable  than  suet.     The  most  acceptable  butcher  condi- 
tion is  indicated  by  a  uniform  covering  of  firm,  but  not 
hard,  flesh,  showing  especially  at  the  dock,  the  neck  and 
along  the  back,  with  no  bareness  of  loin  or  rib,  nor  any 
accumulation   of  soft   fat    in    the    foreflank,  which   has 
"  slipped  "  from  the  ribs  above,  nor  at  the  tail  head,  on 
the  back  rib,  or  the  margin  of  the  loin,  where  rolls  appear. 


246  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

WOOL  SHEEP 

The  fleece  was  the  first  animal  product  to  be  improved 
by  selection  and  breeding,  and  its  improvement  antedates 
the  era  of  modern  husbandry  by  centuries.  The  royal 
robes  of  the  ancient  nobility  were  woven  from  wool  that 
would  compare  favorably  with  that  from  our  modern 
flocks.  The  development  of  the  mutton  breeds,  on  the 
other  hand,  was  begun  less  than  200  years  ago.  Prior  to 
1893  wool  growing  was  one  of  the  most  important  live- 
stock industries  in  this  country,  and  American  Merinos 
were  exported  in  large  numbers  to  Australia,  South 
America  and  South  Africa.  Subsequent  reduction  in  the 
price  of  wool  and  an  advance  in  the  demand  and  the  price 
paid  for  mutton  resulted  in  a  reversal  of  patronage  and  a 
great  diminution  in  the  fine  wool  flocks  in  this  country. 

267.  Production.  —  The  fleece,  originally  furnished  to 
the  sheep  in  amount  and  character  sufficient  only  for  its 
protection,  has  been  increased  in  quantity  and  improved 
in  texture  until  it  may  actually  be  a  serious  burden  both 
to  bear  on  account  of  its  weight  and  to  endure  on  account 
of  its  warmth. 

The  annual  fleece  may  constitute  as  much  as  one  fifth 
of  the  sheep's  weight,  and  the  total  amount  of  wool  pro- 
duced in  the  sheep's  life  may  far  exceed  the  weight  of  its 
body. 

Sheep  are  classified,  on  the  basis  of  fleece,  as  long  wool, 
middle  wool  and  fine  wool.  Fleeces  of  the  first  two  classes 
are  shorn  from  sheep  of  mutton  form,  while  the  fine  wool 
sheep  are  devoted  to  wool  production,  primarily. 

268.  The    classification    of    wool.  —  Market    wool    is 
classified   according  to   the   length   and   strength  of  its 
staple  and  consequently  the  material  into  which  it  can 


THE   TYPES   OF  SHEEP  247 

be  manufactured,  as   clothing,  delaine  and  combing,   in 
each  of  which  there  are  different  commercial  grades. 

259.  Clothing.  —  Clothing  wool  is  of  fine,  short  staple, 
about  two  inches  in  length  and  goes  into  the  highest  grade 
of  woolen  cloth.     Clothing  wools   are  graded  on  their 
quality  into  Picklock,  XXX,  XX,  X,  No.  1,  or  one  half 
blood ;    No.  2,  or  three  eighths  blood  and  No.  3,  or  one 
fourth  blood. 

260.  Delaine  wool  is  fine,  but  longer  than  clothing,  two 
to  three  inches,  of  sound  staple  and  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture  of   delaine   cloths.     Delaine    wools    are   graded 
as  fine,  medium  and  low. 

261.  Combing  wool  is  characterized  by  the  length  and 
strength  of  its  staple,  being  at  least  three  inches  in  length 
and  strong  enough  to  withstand  the  combing  process.     It 
is  made  up  into  worsted  goods.     Such  a  long  wool  is  natu- 
rally coarse,  the  finest  grading  only  No.  2  or  three  eighths. 

262.  The  type  of  the  wool  sheep  grown  to-day  is  much 
less  extreme  in  form  than  the  more  distinctly  wool,  and 
wool  only,   type  of  a  quarter  of  a  century   ago.     The 
relative  reduction  and  increase  in  the  price  of  wool  and 
mutton,   respectively,   has  led  to  a  demand  for  better 
mutton,  even  in  wool  sheep,  so  that  the  common  source 
of  the  finest  fleeces  now  is,   in  reality,  a  dual  purpose 
sheep.     As  a  result  of  the  inevitable  law  of  correlation, 
under    which    mutton    and    wool    are    almost   as   much 
opposed  to  one  another  as  beef  and  milk  or  lard  and  bacon, 
the  old-fashioned,  fine  wool  sheep  were  the  extreme  op- 
posite of  the  mutton  sheep  in  form.     They  were  small, 
with  long  legs,  heads,  necks  and  bodies,  of  an  angular, 
rather  than  a  blocky,  form,  having  light  quarters,  peeked 
ends  and  flat  ribs.     Sheep  of  this  type  not  only  grew  wool 
of  the  finest  staple,  but  also  in  great  amounts.     They  were 


248  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

covered  from  tip  to  toe,  well  wooled  under  the  belly  and  in 
the  arm  pits  and  groin,  where  most  sheep  are  comparatively 
bare.  In  addition,  they  presented  the  maximum  skin  area 
from  which  to  grow  the  fleece  by  virtue  of  the  elaborate 
system  of  folds  into  which  their  skin  was  thrown.  In 
response  to  modern  demand  this  form  has  been  increased 
in  size,  and  its  angularity  has  been  amplified  into  rotund- 
ness,  at  least,  insuring  not  only  more  of  a  carcass  but 
greater  constitutional  vigor.  The  folds  and  wrinkles  have 
been  almost  completely  bred  out,  fine  wool  sheep  being 
classified  at  the  present  time  as  to  the  presence  or  absence 
of  wrinkles. 

263.  Conformation.  —  Attention   has  already  been  di- 
rected to  the  fact  that  the  market  demands  an  acceptable 
mutton   carcass   from   every   sheep,    even   though   they 
may  be  primarily  wool  producers.  •  The  conformation  of 
the  wool  sheep,  therefore,  follows  that  already  described 
for  the  mutton  sheep  as  far  as  is  consistent  with  fine  wool 
production,  and  does  not  depart  therefrom  in  the  same 
extreme  degree  as  does  the  dairy  cow  from  the  beef  steer. 
It   is   generally   characterized,  however,   by  being  more 
sparely  furnished  with  natural  flesh  and  by  having  less 
breadth  and   fullness  of  parts  than  is  characteristic  of 
the  mutton  sheep. 

264.  Quality.  —  There  is  naturally  associated  with  the 
fine  fleece  by  which  this  sheep  is  distinguished  an  unusual 
degree  of   refinement.     They  are  not   large,    and   while 
somewhat  unsymmetrical  in  shape  they  have  fine  heads, 
clean  bone,  delicate,  pink  skins,  and  what  hair  there  is 
on  the  tip  of  their  noses  and  legs  matches,  in  fineness, 
the  fleece  with  which  they  are  covered. 

265.  The  fleece.  —  Quantity,  quality  and  condition  are 
the  essentials  of  a  good  fleece.     Quantity  is  determined  by 


THE  TYPES  OF  SHEEP  249 

length  and  density  which,  however,  are  not  correlated  but 
opposed,  thus  making  the  longest  fleece  the  most  open, 
as  a  rule.  There  should  be  sought,  therefore,  such  a 
balance  between  the  length  of  staple  and  the  density  with 
which  they  grow,  as  will  insure  neither  being  sacrificed  to 
the  other,  the  maximum  of  both  being  secured. 

266.  Quality  involves  primarily  the  texture  of  the  in- 
dividual staple,  which,  in  turn,  is  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  crimp.     The  finest,  shortest,   densest  fleeces 
have  the  closest  crimp,  while  the  longest,  coarsest,  most 
open  fleeces  have  the  crimp  enlarged  to  kinks  or  ringlets. 
The  finer  wools,   of  more  delicate  texture,  are  usually 
possessed  of  a  distinct  luster,  a  feature  of  the  fiber  itself 
and  independent  of  either  yolk  or  discoloration. 

267.  Condition  of  the  fleece  depends  upon  soundness,  i.e. 
whether  or  not  the  fiber  has  made  a  regular  uninterrupted 
growth,  as  shown  by  continuous  crimp  of  uniform  degree, 
and  no  break  in  the  staple  itself;   yolk,  the  secretion  of 
the  skin,  through  the  wool,  which  should  be  sufficiently 
abundant  to  indicate  normal  activity  of  all  vital  functions 
of  the  sheep,  yet  not  excessive  to  be  scoured  out  prior 
to  manufacture,  nor  dry  and  flaky,  which  indicates  some 
constitutional    disturbance,    usually    resulting    from    im- 
proper feeding ;    softness,  the  resistance  offered  by  the 
fleece  to  pressure  of  the  hand,  as  opposed  to  harshness,  in 
which  case  the  fibers  do  not  yield,  but  grate  against  each 
other ;  purity,  which  refers  to  the  absence  of  such  foreign 
matter  as  sand,  cockle  burrs  and  hay  seed,  also  kemp,  a 
vestige  of  the  old  hair  coat  which  sometimes  makes  its 
appearance  in  coarse  fleeces   and  renders  them  of  less 
value  for  manufacture,  because  the  kempy  fibers  do  not 
take  the  dye  ;  and  brightness,  as  opposed  to  discoloration, 
the  natural  fleece  being  white,  or  cream  tinted  if  there  is 


250  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

much  yolk  in  it,  while  any  discoloration  tends  to  darken  it. 
The  brightest  fleeces  are  taken  from  sheep  that  are  kept 
under  the  best  systems  of  care  and  management,  while 
the  sheep  that  are  grown  on  the  open  range,  for  instance, 
have  their  fleeces  badly  soiled. 

268.  Method  of  inspection.  —  Sheep  present  difficulties, 
on  account  of  their  fleeces,  which  require  special  means  of 
making  accurate  observations  and  determinations  of  their 
conformation.  Their  form  is  so  effectively  obscured  by  the 
fleece,  which  may  be  further  complicated  by  the  shepherd's 
clever  trimming,  as  to  make  most  careful  handling  neces- 
sary. The  hands  should  not  be  depended  upon  alto- 
gether, however.  The  lines,  general  contour,  length 
and  strength  of  the  legs,  the  width  between  them  and  the 
style  and  carriage  of  the  sheep  can  best  be  made  out 
by  viewing  them  from  a  little  distance.  Then  thorough 
handling  must  be  resorted  to  in  order  to  verify  conclusions 
arrived  at  by  looking  the  sheep  over.  It  is  especially 
important  that  the  handling  should  be  systematically 
done,  in  order  that  omissions  and  repetitions  may  be 
avoided,  and  a  definite  and  accurate  idea  of  the  sheep 
formed.  The  usual  system  is  to  approach  the  held  sheep 
from  the  left  side,  and  with  the  right  hand  over  the  back  of 
the  head,  part  the  lips  with  the  first  and  second  fingers 
to  determine  the  age ;  then  look  it  full  in  the  face,  noting 
the  proportions,  dimensions  and  features  of  the  head, 
after  which  span  the  neck  with  the  thumb  and  forefinger 
of  each  hand  to  find  out  its  fullness  and  from  this  its 
length  and  the  manner  in  which  it  blends  into  the  shoulders. 
The  breadth  and  compactness  of  the  shoulder  is  felt  by 
the  right  hand,  crossways  over  the  top  of  the  shoulder, 
when,  without  changing  this  position,  the  depth  of  both 
chest  and  foreflank  can  be  made  out  by  the  left  hand, 


THE   TYPES   OF  SHEEP  251 

first  at  the  point  of  the  brisket,  noting,  at  the  same  time, 
whether  it  is  full  or  sharp,  then  back  of  the  elbow, 
fullness  as  well  as  depth  at  this  point  being  made  out. 
The  right  hand  next  feels  along  the  spine  from  the  shoulder 
to  the  dock,  to  get  the  straightness  and  the  thickness  of 
covering  of  the  back  and  loin,  with  the  levelness  and  full- 
ness of  the  rump.  Passing  back  to  the  shoulder  with  both 
hands,  measure  and  feel  the  width,  covering  and  smooth- 
ness of  the  shoulders ;  slipping  the  hands  backward  to 
find  the  spring  of  forerib,  then  again  the  width  and 
covering  at  midrib,  the  width,  as  measured  between  the 
hands,  and  the  thickness,  as  detected  by  the  thumbs,  of 
the  loin,  the  length  of  the  rump,  the  left  hand  remaining 
at  the  margin  of  the  loin,  just  in  front  of  the  hip,  while 
the  right  is  carried  back  to  the  point  of  the  buttocks. 
After  this  the  width  and  fullness  of  the  rump  and  finally 
the  depth  and  fullness  of  the  leg  of  mutton  are  measured 
by  inclosing  it  between  the  thumb  and  first  finger  of  one  or 
both  hands. 

269.  Examination  of  the  fleece.  —  The  fleece  is  ex- 
amined by  parting  it  at  one  of  the  natural  openings  to 
ascertain  the  length  and  fineness  of  staple  and  the  condi- 
tion of  the  fleece  and  skin.  Texture  and  softness  are  best 
detected  by  pressing  down  upon  the  fleece  with  the  flat 
hand.  The  fleece  should  be  opened  at  at  least  three 
points ;  namely,  over  the  heart,  at  midrib,  and  on  the 
outside  of  the  thigh  where  it  is  finest,  medium  and 
coarsest,  respectively.  The  wooling  over  the  face,  legs, 
and  belly  should  be  given  due  consideration,  especially  in 
breeding  classes. 

In  judging  fine  wool  sheep,  it  is  customary  to  set  them 
up  on  their  hind  ends,  thus  exposing  the  fleece  of  the 
belly,  arm  pits  and  groin  to  a  better  view. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 
CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP 


Mutton 


Southdown 

Shropshire 

Oxford 

Middle 

Hampshire 

Wool 

Dorset- 

horn 

Cheviot 

Leicester      1 

Lincoln 

Long  Wool 

Cotswold 

Wool 


American 

Merino 

Delaine 

Fine 

Merino 

Wool 

Ram- 

bouillet 

270.  The  Southdown.  —  This  is  the  oldest,  purest 
and  smallest  of  the  Down  breeds  and  has  the  distinction 
of  representing  the  ideal  of  mutton  form  and  quality 
(Fig.  123).  It  is  one  of  the  smallest  breeds,  rams  weighing 
175  pounds  and  ewes  135  pounds.  The  form  is  the  lowest 
down,  most  compact,  broadest,  deepest  and  most  thickly 
fleshed,  of  any  sheep.  All  the  features  of  block  type  and 
conformation,  i.e.  the  short,  broad  head,  short,  full  neck, 
blending  with  broad,  but  compact  and  smooth  shoulders, 
broad,  thickly  covered  back  and  loin,  and  a  wide,  full,  and 
deep  leg  of  mutton,  are  especially  well  marked  in  the  South- 
down. The  head  is  extraordinarily  short,  wide  between 
the  eyes,  and  rather  fine,  the  ears  short,  small,  pointed, 
252 


THE  BREEDS   OF  SHEEP 


253 


and  covered  on  the  outside  with  little  tufts  of  wool; 
the  face  below  the  eyes  is  bare  of  wool,  and  covered  with 
brownish  gray  hair,  while  the  cheeks  and  forehead  are 
wooled  over.  The  fleece  of  the  Southdown  is  very  dense, 
but,  being  short  and  comparatively  free  from  yolk,  the 
clip  is  light,  six  to  eight  pounds,  and  grades  as  one  half  and 
three  eighths.  It  is  very  evenly  distributed,  however, 
except  on  the  legs,  which  are  covered  with  hair  similar 
to  that  on  the  face. 

A  lack  of  size,  a  light  fleece  and  occasionally  a  dark 


FIG.   123.  —  A  Southdown  rani. 

skin  are  the  points  in  which  a  Southdown  can  sometimes 
be  criticized. 

271.    The    Shropshire.  —  This    is    the    most   generally 


254 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


adaptable  and  popular  breed  of  sheep  in  this  country.  It 
is  chiefly  characterized  by  the  wooling  of  the  head  and  legs 
and  by  its  stylish  carriage  (Fig.  124) .  The  Shropshire  is 
intermediate  in  size,  being  larger  than  the  Southdown  but 
smaller  than  the  Oxford  and  Hampshire,  the  rams  weighing 


FIG.   124.  —  A  Shropshire  ram. 


225  pounds  and  the  ewes  150  to  160  pounds.  The  form 
is  distinctly  mutton,  yet  less  extreme  than  in  the  case  of 
the  Southdown.  The  head  is  completely  wooled  over 
with  a  hood,  only  the  tip  of  the  nose  being  exposed,  which 
is  covered  with  very  heavy,  dark  brown  hair ;  the  ears 
are  rather  stubby,  but  pointed,  and  covered  on  the  back 


THE  BREEDS   OF  SHEEP 


255 


with  fine  tufts  of  wool.  The  head  is  carried  higher  and 
more  alert  than  in  most  other  breeds.  The  fleece  is  most 
typical  of  the  middle  wool  class,  combining  quality  with 
quantity,  and  it  is  evenly  distributed  over  the  body, 
even  down  to  the  hoofs.  Shropshire  fleeces  weigh  eight 


FIG.  125.  —  An  Oxford  ram. 


to  twelve  pounds.  Patches  of  black  or  brown  fleece, 
especially  about  the  head,  dark  skins  and  scurs  are  the 
most  common  causes  of  criticism  of  the  Shropshire. 

272.   The  Oxford  (Fig.  125).  —  This  breed  was  derived, 
comparatively  recently,  from  a  Hampshire-Cotswold  cross. 


256 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


It  is  the  largest  of  the  Down  breeds,  the  rams  weighing 
from  250  pounds  to  350  pounds  and  the  ewes  180  pounds 
to  275  pounds.  The  Oxford  is  not  only  heavy,  but  is  large 
in  frame  and  stature.  The  form  is  of  the  most  approved 
mutton  type,  the  development  of  back,  loin  and  hind- 
quarters being  especially  heavy.  The  head  is  longer  than 
that  of  the  Shropshire,  which  the  Oxford  resembles  most, 


FIG.   126.  —  A  Hampshire  ram,  ewe  and  lambs. 


and  there  is  no  hood,  the  head  being  wooled  only  down 
to  the  line  between  the  eyes,  the  balance  of  the  face  being 
covered  with  grayish  brown  hair;  the  ears  are  longer -and 
finer  than  those  of  the  Shropshire,  and  are  covered  with 
brown  hair  instead  of  wool,  as  are  also  the  legs.  The 
fleece  is  the  longest  and  coarsest  of  the  Down  breeds, 
averaging  about  10  %  heavier  than  that  of  the  Shropshire. 
It  is  sometimes  too  coarse  and  open,  and  may  show  dark 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  257 

patches  of  either  wool  or  skin,  which  are  seriously  ob- 
jected to. 

273.  The  Hampshire.  —  This  old  breed  is  characterized 
by  its  size,  250  pounds  for  rams,  and  185  to  195  pounds  for 
ewes,  and  rugged  appearance,  indicative  of  the  rapid  and 
early  growth  in  the  lambs,  for  which  the  breed  is  most  noted. 
Hampshires  (Fig.  126)  are  of  superior  mutton  form  but  are 
big  boned,  as  shown  in  the  head  and  legs,  and  they  are, 
therefore,  prone  to  coarseness.     The  head  is  very  typical, 
being  wooled  only  on  the  forehead  and  cheeks,  while  the 
face  and  ears  are  covered  with  very  dark  brown  or  black 
hair;   the  head  itself  is  large  and  marked  by  a  distinctly 
Roman  nose ;    the  ears  are  also  large,  carried  straight  out 
from  the  head  and  inclined  to  lop,  if  at  all  coarse.     The 
fleece  is  inferior  to  that  of  most  of  the  other  Down  breeds, 
being  short,  not  dense  and  fine,  nor  well  distributee^  ajid 
yielding  lightly. 

Coarseness  in  head  and  ears,  especially,  and  a  light  fleece 
are  just  criticisms  of  some  Hampshires. 

274.  The  Dorset-horn.  —  This  is  another  one  of  the  old, 
pure  English  breeds  (Fig.  127).     The  size  is  medium,  rams 
weighing  200  pounds  and  ewes  160  pounds.     The  form  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  Shropshire  but  is  less  symmetrical. 
The  head  is  characterized  by  the  presence  of  horns  which 
curve  forward,   closely,  in  spiral   shape ;    the  face   and 
ears   are   covered  with  fine  white  hair,  although  there 
is  a  foretop   of  wool.     The  fleece  is  medium  both  as 
to  quantity  and  quality,  being  short,  lacking  somewhat 
in  density,  unusually  free  from  oil,  and  not  evenly  dis- 
tributed, showing  a  tendency  to  be  bare  on  the  belly. 
Average    fleeces    weigh    six    to    seven   pounds.      Dorset 
ewes  make  exceptional  mothers,  being  deep  milkers  and 
prolific. 


258  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

The  most  common  defects  noticed  among  representatives 
of  this  breed  are  a  lack  of  mutton  development  in  fore- 


FIG.  127.  —  A  Dorset-horn  ram. 

quarters  and  spring  of  rib,  and  a  light  fleece  that  is  not 
evenly  distributed. 

276.  The  Cheviot.  —  Cheviots  have  been  bred  for 
centuries  in  the  Cheviot  Hills  of  the  Scotch  border,  al- 
though outside  this  district  to  which  they  are  native  they 
have  received  less  consideration  than  some  of  the  other 
breeds.  The  Cheviot  (Fig.  128)  is  of  medium  size,  rams 
weighing  200  pounds,  ewes  150  pounds ;  it  has  a  good 
mutton  form,  although  hardly  equal  to  that  of  the  Down 
breeds,  and  yields  an  excellent  fleece  of  pure  white  wool. 


THE  13KEEDS   OF  SHEEP 


259 


The  head  is  broad  between  the  eyes,  which  are  very  bright 
and  alert,  the  ears  are  carried  erect,  and  both  head  and  ears, 
as  well  as  legs,  are  covered  with  fine  white  hair,  no  wool, 
the  fleece  ending  abruptly  with  a  "  ruff  "  just  back  of  the 
ears  and  about  the  throat.  The  Cheviot  fleece  is  some- 
what longer  and  consequently  more  open  than  that  of  the 
Down  breeds,  classing  as  half  combing,  and  is  snowy  white 


Fiu.   128.  — A  Cheviot  ra 


instead  of  the  heavy  gray  tinge  noticeable  in  most  Down 
fleeces.  The  clip  is  light  —  four  and  one  half  to  five  pounds 
of  washed  wool.  Cheviots  dress  well  and  cut  a  very  good 
grade  of  mutton.  They  have  a  very  alert  carriage. 

Too  light  a  fleece,  a  form  deficient  in  compactness  and  a 
timid  disposition  are  sometimes  encountered  in  this  breed. 


260 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


THE  BREEDS   OF  SHEEP  261 

276.  The  Leicester.  —  This  breed  is  of  greatest  his- 
toric importance  on  account  of  its  having  been  the  object 
of   Bakewell's   efforts,    and   having  been  the  first   breed 
improved  it  was  most  extensively  used  in  the  improvement 
of  other  breeds.     Its  early  development  is  reflected  in  the 
refinement  and  uniformity  of  individuals  of  this  breed. 
Leicesters  (Fig.  129)  are  the  smallest  of  the  three  long  wool 
breeds,  rams  weighing  225  to  250  pounds,  and  ewes  175 
pounds  to  200  pounds.     Their  form  is  square  in  outline, 
although  of  rather  high  station,  and  is  characterized  by  a 
peculiar  roundness  and  prominence  of  the  rump,  suggestive 
of  a  torpedo  stern.     The  head  is  broad  and  prominent  be- 
tween the  eyes,  tapering  toward  the  muzzle  with  a  slightly 
Roman  nose,  in  spite  of  the  refinement  of  bone ;  the  ears 
are  fine,  well  poised  and,  like  the  face,  are  covered  with  short, 
white  hair,  with  an  occasional  black  spot.     The  expression 
of  the  Leicester  countenance  has  been  described  as  espe- 
cially "  sheepy."     The  fleece  is  long,  having  a  five  to  six 
inch  staple,  very  fine,  white,  falls  in  ringlets  and  weighs 
nine  to  eleven  pounds.     The  hoofs  and  lips  are  black. 

Uneven  and  excessive  fattening  and  bodies  bare  of 
fleece  on  the  under  side  are  the  common  deficiencies  of  this 
breed.  Classifications  make  no  distinction  between  Bake- 
well  or  English  and  Border  Leicesters,  although  the  latter 
are  in  the  majority.  They  may  be  differentiated  by  the 
white  face,  free  from  wool,  of  the  Border  Leicester  and 
the  bluish  face  and  tuft  on  the  head  of  the  English 
Leicester.  The  Border  type  is  also  more  rugged  looking. 

277.  The  Lincoln.  —  Bred  originally  in  the  fen  country 
of  Lincolnshire,  where  the  environment  was  conducive  to 
size,  this  breed  is  still,  even  after  the  refining  influence  of 
Leicester  crosses,  the  largest  of  the  sheep  breeds  (Fig.  130). 
Rams  weigh  200  to  250  pounds,  and  shear  an  exceptionally 


262  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

heavy  fleece,  weighing  fourteen  to  eighteen  pounds,  on  an 
average.  In  addition  to  their  scale  they  have  a  square, 
massive,  mutton  form.  The  head  is  characterized  by  a 
tuft  of  wool  on  the  forehead  which  is  readily  distinguish- 
able from  the  bare  forehead  of  the  Leicester  and  the  fore- 
lock of  the  Cotswold.  The  face  and  ears,  as  well  as  the 


FIG.  130.  —  A  Lincoln  ram. 

legs  below  the  knees  and  hocks,  are  covered  with  white 
hair.  The  fleece  is  the  longest  of  any,  not  less  than  eight 
inches  in  staple,  is  moderately  fine,  white,  lustrous,  and 
unusually  sound.  A  tendency  to  coarseness  of  both 
mutton  and  wool  is  noticeable  in  this  large  breed  of  sheep. 
278.  The  Cotswold.  —  This  is  a  very  old  breed,  native 


THE  BREEDS   OF  SHEEP  263 

to  the  Cotswold  hills  in  Gloucestershire,  England.  The 
original  Cotswolds  have  been  much  improved  in  the  way 
of  a  more  compact  form,  greater  symmetry,  weight,  early 
maturity,  style  and  fleece  (Fig.  131) .  Cotswolds  are  among 
the  largest  of  the  breeds  of  sheep,  weighing  200  to  250  pounds. 
They  are  upstanding,  but  of  good  mutton  form,  showing 
special  strength  of  back  and  loin.  The  head  is  very 


FIG.   131.  —  A  Cotswold  ram. 

stylishly  carried  and  is  characterized  by  a  heavy  forelock, 
which  falls  over  the  face  and  eyes ;  the  face  and  ears  are 
covered  with  white  or  grayish  white  hairs.  The  fleece 
of  the  Cotswold  is  in  the  combing  class,  being  ten  inches 
or  more  in  length  of  staple,  open,  arranging  itself  in  locks, 
but  yields  heavily,  sixteen  to  eighteen  pounds.  It  should 
be  evenly  distributed  all  over  the  body  except  the  face. 


264 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


A  coarse  texture  of  mutton  and  an  excess  of  external 
fat  are  the  objections  most  commonly  raised  against  repre- 
sentatives of  this  breed. 

279.  The  Merino.  —  This  group  embraces  all  the  fine 
WQO!  breeds  and  their  subclasses,  the  name,  like  the  origi- 
nal stock,  being  derived  from  Spain.  Merinos  are  most 


i  Morino  ram. 


comprehensively  classed  as  American,  Delaine  and 
Rambouillet.  Being  essentially  wool  rather  than  mutton 
sheep,  the  Merinos  are,  as  a  class,  quite  different  in  size 
and  form  from  the  breeds  already  described. 

American   (Fig.   132).     These  are  the  smallest  of   the 
Merinos,  or  of  any  other  breed  for  that  matter,  the  rams 


THE  BREEDS   OF  SHEEP 


265 


weighing  from  100  to  175  pounds,  the  ewes  80  to  100  pounds. 
Their  form  is  light,  angular  and  lacks  symmetry  when  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  mutton  breeds.  The  head  is  small, 
completely  wooled  over  except  at  the  tip  of  the  nose,  and 
surmounted  by  heavy,  sharply  incurving,  spiral  horns  in 
the  male,  while  the  ewes  have  none.  The  fleece  is  short, 


FIG.  133.  —  A  Delaine  Merino  ram. 

but  very  dense  and  fine,  being  two  and  one  half  inches 
in  length  and  shearing  from  twelve  to  twenty  pounds. 
The  amount  of  yolk  which  it  contains  causes  the  fleece 
to  soil  on  the  surface,  giving  the  "  Black  Topped  "  effect. 
The  Merino's  skin  is  a  most  delicate  pink.  The  fleece 
completely  covers  the  sheep  from  tip  to  toe,  and  the  normal 
surface  area  is  increased  by  the  skin  being  thrown  into 


266  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

folds  and  wrinkles,  there  being  from  three  to  five  folds  on 
the  neck,  showing  most  on  the  lower  side,  two  to  three  at 
the  elbow,  with  wrinkles  on  the  side,  and  across  the  hips, 
and  folds  around  the  tail  and  across  the  thighs.  Merinos 


FIG.   134.  —A  Rambouillet  ram. 

are  classed  on  the  basis  of  the  presence  or  absence  of 
wrinkles  as 

Class  A.  Have  heavy  wrinkles  and  folds,  as  in  the  most 
extreme  American  type. 

Class  B.  Have  only  a  few  folds  about  the  neck  and 
brisket,  and  possibly  the  thighs. 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  267 

Class  C.  Are  smooth  with  the  exception  of  a  slight  sug- 
gestion of  wrinkles  about  the  neck. 

Delaine  (Fig.  133).  These  are  distinguished  from  the 
American  Merinos  by  greater  size,  rams  weighing  140  to  200 
pounds,  and  ewes  100  to  150  pounds,  and  a  better  mutton 
form,  the  smoothness  of  which  is  enhanced  by  the  almost 
complete  absence  of  wrinkles  (Class  C).  The  head  may 
be  either  horned  or  polled,  depending  upon  the  numerous 
subfamilies  within  the  breed.  The  fleece  is  not  so  fine 
and  crimpy,  nor  so  rich  in  yolk  as  that  of  the  American, 
but  the  staple  is  longer  and  stronger,  and  the  fleece  weighs 
from  nine  to  eighteen  pounds. 

Rambouillet.  This  is  the  largest  of  the  Merinos,  and 
combines  so  much  of  the  fine  wool  character  with  size  and 
mutton  form  as  to  constitute  a  dual-purpose  sheep  (Fig.  134) . 
Rams  weigh  175  to  180  pounds  and  ewes  140  to  160  pounds. 
This  sheep  is  rather  upstanding,  but  has  a  well-formed 
mutton  body.  The  head  is  of  good  size,  with  a  strong 
nose,  and  usually,  though  not  always,  large  spiral  horns 
in  the  male,  though  none  in  the  female.  The  fleece  com- 
pletely covers  the  sheep  as  in  the  case  of  the  other  Merinos 
and  is  fine,  dense  and  white,  comparatively  free  from  an 
excess  of  yolk,  has  a  three-inch  staple,  and  shears  from  ten 
to  fifteen  pounds.  Evidence  of  constitution  and  hardiness 
should  be  a  feature  of  this  breed. 


PART  VI 
JUDGING  SWINE 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE  TYPES  OF  SWINE 

THE  hog  (Sus  scrofa)  is  a  monogastric,  omnivorous 
animal  with  an  especial  predisposition  to  obesity  and  a 
propensity  for  making  extremely  rapid  gains  in  weight. 
Unlike  the  ruminant,  the  hog  is  ill  adapted  to  the  consump- 
tion of  rough  foodstuffs  but  requires  his  ration  in  concen- 
trated form.  His  scavenger  habits  render  him  an  indis- 
pensable party  to  the  great  industry  of  marketing  corn 
through  cattle,  as  it  is  practiced  throughout  the  middle 
western  United  States,  and  he  furnishes  a  most  profitable 
outlet  for  the  dairy  by-products  of  the  eastern  United 
States  and  southeastern  Canada. 

Types.  There  are  two  distinct  types  of  swine,  fat  and 
bacon,  each  directly  opposed  to  the  other  in  the  character 
of  their  products,  their  ration  requirements  and,  conse- 
quently, in  their  forms. 

THE  FAT  HOG 

There  is  no  more  efficient  means  of  transforming  corn, 
the  staple  crop  of  the  American  farmer,  into  lard  and  a  fat, 
energizing  meat  upon  which  the  great  masses  of  laboring 
people  depend,  than  the  fat  hog. 

280.  Production.  —  The  fat  or  lard  hog  supplies  fresh 
pork  for  roasts  and  chops  from  his  ribs  and  loin,  cured 
pork  products,  as  hams,  shoulders,  and  bacon  sides,  lard, 
271 


272  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

and  such  odd  products  as  sausage,  scrapple,  head  cheese, 
and  pickled  feet.  On  account  of  the  lard  rendered,  and  the 
fact  that  so  much  of  the  carcass  is  demanded  in  the  cured 
state,  there  is  greater  uniformity  in  the  relative  values  of 
the  different  parts  of  the  carcasses  of  hogs  than  of  cattle 
or  sheep.  The  carcass  is  also  more  completely  utilized 
for  higher  priced  products,  and  dressing  about  80  % 
of  the  live  weight,  the  butcher  is  enabled  to  pay  a  higher 
proportionate  price  to  the  producer  than  he  pays  for  beef 
and  mutton  and  still  sell,  at  a  profit,  for  a  lower  price  to 
the  consumer.  There  is  also  less  discrimination  in  the 
matter  of  quality  in  hog  carcasses.  Weight  really  has 
more  to  do  with  the  grading  of  hog  carcasses  than  have 
texture  or  color.  The  weights  most  desired  range  from 
200-400  pounds  according  to  the  class  of  carcass  the  hog 
will  dress  out. 

The  divisions  of  the  carcass  are  essential  for  the  hog 
judge  to  know  (Fig.  135). 

281.  The   hog   carcass   cuts.  —  The    simplest  division 
of  the  hog  carcass  makes  four  general  sections  of  it  first, 
the  hams,  the  middle  piece,  the  shoulders  and  the  head. 
Then  each  is  further  subdivided  after  being  split  in  half. 

282.  The  hams  are  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  car- 
cass a  short  distance  in  front  of  the  point  of  the  hips  and 
are  afterward  trimmed  more  or  less. 

283.  The  middle  piece,  extending  from   the  hams  to 
the  shoulders,  includes   the  pork  loin,  with   tenderloin, 
from  which  chops  and  roasts  of  fresh  pork  are  taken, 
the  side,  from  which  the  bacon  strip  and  sparerib  comes, 
and  the  fat  back. 

284.  The  shoulder,  separated  from  the  middle  between 
fourth  and  fifth  ribs,  embraces  the  picnic  or  California 
ham,  consisting,  more  in  detail,  of  the  picnic  butt  and 


- 


FIG.  135.  —  Hog  carcass  cuts.     1,  short-cut  ham;  2,  loin;  3,  belly;  4, 

picnic  butt ;  5,  Boston  butt ;  6,  jowl ;  7,  hock ;  8,  fat  back ;  9,  clear  plate ; 

2,  8,  back ;  2,  3,  8,  side ;  4,  7,  picnic  shoulder ;  5,  9,  shoulder  butt ; 

8,  9,  long  fat  back ;  4,  5,  7,  9,  rough  shoulder.     (Illinois  Bulletin  147.) 

T  273 


274 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


hock,  and  the  shoulder  butt,  composed  of  the  Boston  butt 
and  the  clear  plate. 

The  head  piece  furnishes  the  meat  for  sausage,  head 
cheese  and  scrapple. 

285.  Lard  is  yielded  by  the  fat  back,  the  clear  plate, 
the  leaf  lard  or  internal  fat  and  the  trimmings,  amounting 
in  all  to  from  one  tenth  to  one  third  of  the  weight  of  the 
carcass. 

Hogs  dress  from  73  to  89  %. 

286.  Type.  —  The  type  of  the  fat  hog  is  the  same  block 
type  that  is  also  characteristic  of  the  beef  steer  and  the 


136.  —  A  typical  fat  barrow. 


mutton  wether  (Fig.  136).  It  is  a  low,  broad,  deep  form, 
that  is  productive  of  greatest  weight  in  a  given  compass, 
earliest  maturity,  the  most  rapid  fattening  in  the  feeder,  the 
highest  dressing  percentage,  and  the  best  yielding  carcass. 
287.  Conformation  (Fig.  137) . — The  head  of  the  lard  hog, 
like  that  of  all  other  block  animals,  is  short,  broad  and  deep, 


THE  TYPES   OF  SWINE  275 

the  snout  being  comparatively  short,  with  breadth  marked 
particularly  between  the  eyes  and  depth  through  the  jowl ; 
the  eyes  large,  the  eye  of  the  hog  being  naturally  small 
and  deep  set ;  the  ears  of  medium  size,  pointed  and  thin, 
carried  well  up,  not  lopped,  although  these  features  involve 
to  a  large  extent  the  breed  of  the  hog,  and  close  set  at 
the  poll ;  the  jowl,  the  region  of  the  lower  jaw,  full  and 
deep,  blending  well  with  the  lower  part  of  the  neck, 
but  trim,  giving  no  evidence  of  being  pendant  or  flabby; 
the  neck  hardly  definable,  it  really  constituting  only  the 


FIG.  137.  —  Points  of  the  hog.  a  snout;  b,  ear;  c,  neck;  d,  jowl; 
e,  shoulder ;  /,  back ;  g,  loin ;  h,  rump ;  j,  ham ;  k,  side  or  ribs ; 
I,  flank;  m,  belly;  n,  fore  flank;  o,  foreleg;  p,  hind  leg. 

union  of  the  head  with  the  body,  and  consisting  of  but  two 
dimensions,  width  and  depth,  without  appreciable  length, 
as  far  as  such  a  thing  is  possible  in  an  animal  structure ; 
the  top  line  making  a  sharp  curve  upward  from  the  poll 
to  the  top  of  the  shoulders,  while  the  jowl  is  continued 
into  the  point  of  the  shoulder  and  the  brisket;  the  so- 
called  shoulder  vein,  the  thickest  part  where  the  neck 
blends  into  the  shoulder,  especially  full;  the  shoulders 
not  having  greater  width  than  is  carried  throughout  the 
rest  of  the  hog,  but  broad  and  compact  on  top,  well  laid  in 


276  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

and  smooth  on  the  sides,  indicating  fine  bone,  thickly 
covered;  the  chest  deep,  wide,  full  on  the  floor  and  at 
the  breast,  with  no  constriction  just  back  of  the  shoulders 
nor  between  and  behind  the  forelegs ;  the  back  broad, 
flat  and  thickly  covered,  carrying  a  maximum  of  lard  and 
meat  and  well  supported  with  a  slight  arch ;  sides  as  long 
and  deep  as  is  consistent  with  width,  the  primary  essential 
in  the  lard  hog.  Since  side  meat  makes  bacon,  and  the 
better  grade  is  from  the  upper  part  of  the  side,  length  is 
more  important  than  depth,  although  as  much  depth  of 
side  as  possible,  so  long  as  it  comes  from  length  of  rib 
and  not  from  the  weight  of  the  contents  of  the  abdomen, 
is  desirable.  Another  indication  of  side  meat  of  the  right 
sort  is  the  smoothness,  the  absence  of  wrinkles  and  creases, 
and  the  firm,  rather  than  flabby,  appearance.  If  the 
back  is  broad  and  the  rib  is  well  arched  the  side  will  be 
more  or  less  at  right  angles  with  the  back  and  will  carry  well 
out  to  the  line  established  by  the  shoulder  in  front  and 
the  ham  behind.  If  the  back  is  narrow  and  the  rib  flat, 
there  will  be  no  sharp  demarcation  between  the  back 
and  the  side ;  the  side  will  be  deep  but  pendant  and  the  hog 
will  fall  away  directly  behind  the  shoulders  and  con- 
tinue narrow  to  the  hindquarters.  The  loin  should 
conform  to  the  back,  already  described,  in  being  broad 
and  thickly  covered,  the  flank  deep  and  full  enough  to 
make  the  side  carry  out  evenly  and  the  under  line  straight ; 
the  rump  broad,  long  and  as  level  as  possible,  there 
always  being  some  droop  of  the  rump  corresponding 
to  the  sharp  curve  at  the  top  of  the  neck  which  is  followed 
more  or  less  by  the  whole  top  line.  The  maximum  weight 
in  the  hams,  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  hog  carcass,  is 
secured  by  the  breadth  of  rump  being  continued  down  into 
the  thighs  as  deeply  as  possible  toward  the  hocks  and  ampli- 


THE  TYPES   OF  SWINE  277 

fied  by  a  fullness  which  makes  them  rounded  out  behind 
and  to  both  inside  and  outside.  They  should,  however, 
be  firm  and  show  development  of  muscle,  rather  than  com- 
posed largely  of  fat,  which  makes  them  soft  and  flabby 
and  requires  extensive  trimming  before  they  can  be 
cured.  The  essential  thing,  so  far  as  the  legs  of  the  fat 
hog  are  concerned,  is  that  they  shall  be  sufficiently  straight 
and  strong  to  carry  their  weight  through  the  feeding 
period  and  finally  to  the  shambles.  This  latter  formerly 
meant  much  more  than  now,  as  hogs  were  at  one  time  driven 
over  land  considerable  distances,  while  the  trip  from  the 
farm  to  the  car  and  from  the  car  to  the  slaughter  is 
comparatively  short  now.  This  matter  of  legs  is  of 
much  greater  importance  in  breeding  animals,  but  it  is 
nevertheless  essential  that  market  hogs  should  stand  well 
up  on  their  toes.  Broken  down  pasterns,  knock  or  buck 
knees  and  crooked  hocks  are  the  common  defects  in  the 
conformation  of  the  legs. 

288.  Quality  in  hogs  influences  both  the  texture  of  the 
carcass  and  the  dressing  percentage.     It  is  indicated  by 
the  size  and  shape  of  the  head  and  ears,  the  smoothness 
of  the  shoulders,  the  character  of  the  bone  in  the  cannons 
and  joints,  the  amount,  texture  and  course  of  the  hair, 
the  trimness  of  the  jowl  and  the  under  line,  and  the  general 
refinement  of  the  hog  throughout. 

289.  Condition.  —  Most  hogs  are  marketed  at  weights 
which  make  them  less  mature  at  slaughter  time  than  the 
majority  of  cattle  are.     They  are,  therefore,  fattening  as 
they  grow,  which  is  equally  true  of  cattle  only  in  the  case 
of  baby  beeves.     Condition,  comparatively  speaking,  is  of 
less  degree,  so  far  as  actual  ripeness  is  concerned,  although 
a  thin  hog  is,  in  reality,  fatter  than  a  finished  steer  because 
it  is  more  his  nature  to  be  so.     Furthermore,  for  the  same 


278  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

reason,  the  butcher  hog  is  less  apt  to  be  overdone  than 
the  butcher  steer.  Show  hogs  do  manifest  an  overripe 
condition  sometimes  by  "  slipping  "  just  back  of  the  shoul- 
ders, having  their  sides  break  in  folds,  wrinkles  or  creases, 
or  their  flesh  become  too  hard  or  too  soft. 

290.  Feeding  hogs.  —  On  account  of  the  prolificacy 
of  the  sow,  the  rapid  growth  and  early  marketing  age  of 
the  pigs,  and  the  danger  of  cholera  involved  in  shipping 
hogs  about,  there  is  no  such  thing  on  the  market  as  a 
feeding  hog.  The  feeders  of  hogs  either  breed  their  own 
or  secure  them  in  their  immediate  vicinity.  Since  hogs, 
as  a  class,  make  so  much  greater  proportionate  gains  on  a 
unit  of  feed  consumed  than  cattle  or  sheep  do,  less 
consideration  is  given  to  the  type  fed.  There  is,  however, 
a  great  difference  in  the  economy  with  which  gains  are 
made  in  the  different  individuals,  as  well  as  in  the  character 
of  the  carcass  when  finished.  The  type  that  feeds  best  is 
of  the  same  general  form  that  is  required  by  the  butcher, 
namely,  low,  wide  and  deep,  early,  rapid  and  economic 
production  being  as  closely  correlated  with  this  form 
as  are  desirable  killing  qualities.  The  feeding  hog  should 
also  possess  quality  to  insure  against  growing  a  wasteful 
carcass,  although  he  should  not  appear  trim,  but  should 
show  his  feeding  capacity  by  being  habitually  full ;  con- 
stitution, as  evidenced  by  a  deep  and  full  forerib ;  and  a 
feeding  temperament.  A  leggy,  long-headed,  narrow, 
flat-sided,  light-hammed  and  wild-eyed  hog  will  be  unprofit- 
able both  to  his  feeder  in  the  making  and  to  the  butcher 
when  he  is  finally  finished. 

THE  BACON  HOG 

The  entire  dressed  carcass  of  this  hog  is  cured  into  bacon 
which,  therefore,  is  the  sole  product  of  hogs  of  this  type. 


THE  TYPES   OF  SWINE  279 

In  this  they  differ  materially  from  the  fat  or  lard  hogs 
whose  carcasses  yield  fresh  pork,  lard  and  cured  meat, 
one  portion  of  the  latter  being  bacon.  This  lard  hog 
bacon,  however,  must  be  considered  as  a  by-product  of 
pork  and  lard  production.  It  consists  only  of  the  lower 
two  thirds  of  the  side,  between  the  shoulders  and  hams 
and  below  the  limit  of  the  fresh  cuts  from  the  back  and 
loin;  and  being  cut  from  a  hog  that  has  been  bred  and 
fed  for  lard  the  side  is  too  soft  and  coarse  grained  to  rank 
with  true  bacon. 

291.  Production.  —  The  carcass  of  the   bacon    hog  is 
split    into    two  Wiltshire    sides  which  are  cured  entire 
and  are  then  all  cut  up  for  bacon.     There  is,  however,  a 
difference  in  the  grade  of  bacon  derived  from  the  different 
regions  of  the  side,  that  cut  from  the  upper  part  and 
center  of  the  strip  being  superior  to  that  at  the  lower 
part  and  ends. 

Merit  in  a  Wiltshire  side  is  determined  by  weight, 
160-200  pounds ;  shape,  —  long  and  trim  with  maximum 
development  along  the  back  from  shoulders  to  gammons, 
where  the  highest  priced  cuts  of  bacon  are  taken;  con- 
sistence, which  should  be  firm,  not  soft  or  flabby ;  texture 
of  lean,  which  is  finer  than  in  any  other  pork  product; 
and  fat,  only  enough  to  show  a  uniform  margin  one  to  one 
and  a  half  inches  wide  along  the  back  bone.  Such  a  side 
can  be  produced  only  in  a  hog  of  the  correct  type. 

292.  Type.  —  The  bacon  type  is  characterized  .by  length, 
and  all  that  is  correlated  with  it,  i.e.  length  of  side  pri- 
marily, with  a  long  snout,  long  legs,  a  narrow,  trim  body 
and  especially  light  fore  and  hind  quarters  (Fig.  138). 

293.  Conformation.  —  Being    a    longer,    narrower    hog 
all  over,  the  head  of  the  bacon  hog  is  characterized  by 
greater  length,   less  width  and  depth,  making  it  more 


280  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

tapering  to  the  snout,  lighter  and  neater  in  the  jowl,  with 
a  fine  and  usually  upright  ear.  The  neck  is  much  better 
defined  than  in  the  lard  hog,  being  level  on  top,  showing 
none  of  the  arch  from  the  pole  to  the  top  of  the  shoulders, 
characteristic  of  the  lard  hog,  and  no  marked  fullness  of 
shoulder  vein,  but  just  an  even  thickness  of  medium 
length.  The  shoulders  are  light,  comparatively  straight, 
lengthening  the  back,  and  shortening  the  distance  from 


FIG.   138.  —  A  typical  bacon  barrow. 

the  shoulder  forward,  neither  sharp  nor  open  but  compact 
on  top  and  especially  smooth  on  account  of  their  being 
of  equal  width  and  well  blended  with  the  back.  The  back 
may  be  considered  the  foundation  of  the  sides,  therefore 
its  most  desirable  features  are  those  which  are  conducive 
to  a  most  acceptable  side,  i.e.  as  great  length  as  can  be  had 
and  still  be  carried  up  well  with  just  a  suggestion  of  an 
arch,  width  sufficient  to  insure  ample  abdominal  capacity 
and  a  meaty  side,  yet  not  wide  enough  to  predispose  to  a 


THE  TYPES   OF  SWINE  281 

short  or  fat  side  as  in  the  case  of  the  lard  hog,  where  width 
is  a  primary  essential.  The  law  of  correlation  is  in  no 
place  more  manifest  than  in  the  distinctions  between  a 
lard  and  a  bacon  hog.  The  rib  has  a  peculiar  turn  which 
is  responsible  for  the  shape  of  back  and  side  by  which  the 
bacon  hog  is  characterized.  It  arches  abruptly  a  short 
distance  from  the  vertebral  column,  which  it  leaves  at  a 
right  angle,  and  then  continues  straight  in  its  course 
throughout  the  depth  of  the  side,  the  lower  end  incurving 
again  to  the  sternum  or  breast  bone  in  such  a  way  as  to 
insure  the  greatest  capacity  of  chest  vfor  the  width  of  the 
hog.  The  result  is  a  relatively  flat  back  except  as  it  is 
rounded  by  the  depth  of  flesh,  and  a  straight,  deep  side. 
The  loin  should  have  breadth  proportionate  to  that  of 
the  back  forward  and  the  rump  in  the  rear,  there  being 
a  tendency  in  some  bacon  hogs  to  lose  width  at  the  loin  ; 
strength  sufficient  to  make  the  loin  the  crown  of  the  arch 
of  the  top  line,  and  a  flank  only  so  deep  and  full  as  to 
carry  out  the  straightness  of  the  side.  The  rump  desired 
is  long,  comparatively  level,  carrying  throughout  the  hind- 
quarters the  uniform  width  of  the  shoulders,  back  and 
loin  having  a  rounded  contour  from  side  to  side,  and  con- 
tinued into  deep,  comparatively  thick  but  smooth  and 
tapering  gammons.  The  shoulders,  back,  sides,  loin  and 
hindquarters  should  be  covered  with  uniformly  thick, 
smooth,  firm  flesh.  There  is  naturally  a  well-marked 
correlation  between  bone  and  muscle,  and  since  bacon 
consists  more  essentially  of  muscle  than  of  lard,  the  bacon 
hog  is  naturally  heavier  boned  than  the  lard  hog.  Quality 
of  hair  and  flesh  also  being  characteristic  of  the  bacon 
hog,  the  bone  should  be  smooth  and  clean,  though  ample. 
The  extra  length  of  legs  which  goes  with  the  long  body 
makes  it  especially  important  that  they  be  straight,  but 


282  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

the  broken-down  pasterns  and  cramped  hocks  are  not 
as  common  as  in  the  much  heavier  bodied  and  lighter 
boned  lard  hog. 

294.  Quality.  —  General    refinement    is    usually   more 
marked  in  hogs  of  bacon  type,  although  their  bone  is 
naturally  heavier.     Trimness  of  jowl  and  under  line,  fine 
ears,  light,  smooth  shoulders,  tapering  hindquarters  and 
gammons,  with  a  fine,  smooth  coat  of  hair,  are  indica- 
tive of  the  best  texture  of  lean  and  even  deposition  of  fat 
so  essential  in  high  class  bacon. 

295.  Condition.  —  The  determination  or  description  of 
condition  in  the  bacon  hog,  as  in  the  dairy  cow,  is  a  fine 
point.     He  should  not  be  fat  as  the  lard  hog,  yet  simply 
being  half  fat  does  not  constitute  bacon  condition.     There 
is  in  bacon  hogs,  as  in  all  other  fat  stock,  an  optimum  state 
which  constitutes  ripeness,   but  it  is  quite  different  in 
degree  of  fatness  from  what  constitutes  ripeness  in  lard 
hogs,   cattle  and  sheep.     The  condition  sought  in    the 
bacon  hog  is  that  in  which  there  has  been  sufficient  fat  de- 
posited to  show  the  narrow  margin  along  the  back  when 
the  carcass  is  split,  and  this  fat  is  of  the  sort  which  gives 
firmness  to  the  side,  being  composed  largely  of  the  solid 
palmatin  and  stearin  fats   rather  than  the   olein  which 
melts  at  ordinary  temperatures.     It  should  be  interspersed 
evenly  with  the  lean.     There  is  difficulty  hi  holding  this 
condition    after    the    hogs    have    attained    200   pounds 
weight. 

296.  Feeding  hogs.  —  Hogs  grown  for  the  production 
of  bacon  are  marketed  at  such  an  early  age  that  the 
feeder  type  concerns  the  breeder  more  than  any  one  else. 
Pigs  for  this  purpose  should  not  only  conform  to  the 
correct  type  but  they  should  have  constitutional  vigor  as 
indicated  by  a  full,  though  not  wide,  chest,  a  bright  eye 


THE  TYPES  OF  SWINE  283 

and  a  general  appearance  of  thrift.  They  are  of  a  sort 
that  is  slower  in  maturing  and  fattening  than  are  lard 
hogs,  but  should  give  promise  of  having  no  difficulty  in 
making  the  required  weight  of  160  to  200  pounds  in  six  to 
eight  months. 

297.  The  method  of  inspection.  —  Hogs  of  either  type 
are  rarely  handled  at  all,  the  eye  being  depended  upon 
almost  altogether.  Some  judges  touch  the  side  to  deter- 
mine the  consistence  of  the  flesh,  but  even  this  can  usually 
be  made  out  by  noting  the  lay  of  the  hair  and  the  presence 
of  wrinkles. 

From  in  front,  the  general  width,  symmetry  and 
smoothness,  also  the  character  and  features  of  the  head, 
and  the  length,  the  bone  and  the  direction  of  the  legs  can 
be  noted;  then  from  the  side  and  above,  the  length  in 
general,  the  top  and  under  lines,  the  station,  the  length 
and  the  strength  of  the  forelegs,  the  head  in  profile,  the 
width  and  smoothness  of  the  shoulders,  the  breadth  and 
covering  of  the  back  and  the  loin,  the  fullness  of  the  fore- 
rib  and  flank,  the  length  and  levelness  of  the  rump,  the 
depth  and  fullness,  or  taper,  of  the  hams,  or  gammons, 
as  the  case  may  be,  and  the  straightness  and  strength  of 
the  legs  are  ascertained ;  from  the  rear,  the  uniformity 
with  which  the  width  is  carried  throughout,  more  particu- 
larly, the  width  and  smoothness  of  shoulders,  the  breadth 
of  back,  loin  and  rump,  the  depth  of  hindquarters  and 
the  fullness  or  taper  of  the  ham  or  gammon,  with  the 
length  and  straightness  of  the  hind  legs,  receive  considera- 
tion. The  opinions  formed  from  the  one  side  inspection 
should  then  be  verified  by  a  final  look  from  the  other  side. 

Throughout  this  inspection  quality,  as  indicated  by  the 
amount,  the  character  and  the  lay  of  the  hair,  the  fineness 
of  the  head,  the  ears,  the  shoulders,  the  cannons  and  the 


284  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

joints,  the  smoothness  and  evenness  of  the  covering,  with 
an  absence  of  wrinkles,  creases  and  folds,  and  a  trim 
under  line  should  be  borne  in  mind.  Condition  also,  as 
manifested  by  the  general  degree  of  fatness,  the  consist- 
ence and  smoothness  of  the  covering,  and  the  trimness  of 
jowl  and  under  line,  can  be  determined  incident  to  the 
general  inspection. 


CHAPTER  XVI 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE 


Fat 


Berkshire 
Poland  China 
Duroc  Jersey 
Chester  White 
Hampshire 


Bacon 


Large     Improved     York- 
shire 
Tamworth 


298.  The  Berkshire.  —  The  original  stock  of  the  Berk- 
shire breed  was  very  old,  but  it  has  been  modified  in  both 
color  and  form  to  such  an  extent,  by  engrafting  other 
stocks,  as  to  bring  the  real  origin  of  the  breed  within  the 
era  of  general  live-stock  improvement,  which  began  in 
Great  Britain  in  Bakewell's  time.  At  that,  it  was  the 
first  breed  improved,  and  has  been  most  potent  in  the  im- 
provement of  others. 

The  typical  Berkshire  (Fig.  139)  represents  the  early  im- 
provement wrought  in  the  breed  by  an  exceptional  degree 
of  style,  character  and  refinement,  as  well  as  in  the  uni- 
formity with  which  he  possesses  merit,  as  measured  by 
feeders'  and  packers'  standards.  The  Berkshire  averages 
a  little  larger  than  any  of  the  other  fat  hog  breeds,  but  does 
not  attain  as  great  size  as  the  two  leading  bacon  breeds, 
boars  weighing  500  pounds  and  sows  400  pounds  at  ma- 
turity. Its  form  is  characterized  by  more  length  and 
trimness  of  body  than  is  usual  in  breeds  of  this  type,  the 
285 


286 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


latter  character  being  especially  noticeable  in  the  hams. 
The  head  is  distinctive,  the  snout  being  of  medium 
length  with  only  a  moderate  dish  in  the  face,  the  ear 
very  neat,  well  shaped,  carried  erect,  and  the  jowl  full 
but  not  flabby.  The  color  is  black  with  six  white  points, 
but  the  absence  of  a  white  point  is  less  objectionable 
than  the  presence  of  an  irregular  white  patch  on  the  body. 


FIG.    139. —  A  Berkshi 


The  Berkshire  has  ample  bone  of  superior  quality,  straight, 
strong  legs,  stands  well  up  on  his  toes,  and  moves  with  a 
stylish  carriage.  He  is  a  show  hog  from  tip  to  tip. 

The  old-fashioned,  short,  extremely  dished  face,  a 
tendency  to  be  leggy  and  to  show  an  occasional  splash  of 
white  or  a  sandy  tint  on  the  body  are  not  favored  by 
Berkshire  breeders. 

299.  The  Poland  China.  —  This  is  an  American  breed 
of  most  composite  origin,  but  selected  and  bred  for  pork 
and  lard  production  exclusively.  Poland  Chinas  (Fig.  140) 


THE  BREEDS   OF  SWINE  287 

are  but  little  smaller  than  Berkshire^  and  of  the  same 
color  and  markings,  although  readily  distinguishable  from 
them  by  their  form  and  head.  The  shape  of  the  Poland 
China  conforms  to  that  of  the  fat  hog  in  the  extreme  width 
of  body  and  fullness  of  shoulders  and  hams,  being  most  char- 
acteristic, although  often  secured  at  a  sacrifice  of  length. 
The  head  is  distinguished  by  more  length  of  snout,  al- 
though it  is  very  fine  and  tapering,  with  little,  if  any, 


FIG.   140.  —  A  Poland  China  boar. 

dish  in  the  face,  and  an  ear  that  is  erect  two  thirds  of  the 
way  from  the  knuckle,  breaking  forward  for  the  last  one 
third  of  its  length.  The  jowl  is  heavy  in  accordance  with 
that  fullness  which  prevails  throughout  the  make-up  of  the 
fat  hog.  Color  is  black  with  white  points,  but  there  is 
less  regularity  in  the  white  on  the  face  than  in  the  Berk- 
shire. Poland  Chinas  show  a  marked  inclination  to  ma- 
ture early  and  fatten  rapidly. 

A  lack  of  size,  and  especially  of  length,  too  fine  bone, 


288 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


and  a  short,  droopy  rump,  are  the  criticisms  which  the 
Poland  China  breeders  are  endeavoring  to  meet. 

300.  The  Duroc  Jersey.  —  This  breed,  evolved  from 
two  parent  stocks,  the  Duroc  and  the  Jersey  Red,  having 
a  local  reputation  in  New  York  and  New  Jersey  respec- 
tively, has,  like  most  of  the  other  breeds,  been  molded 
to  a  uniform  type  by  breeding  for  a  definite  purpose, 
which,  in  this  instance,  was  to  meet  the  requirements  of 


FIG.  141.  —  A  Duroc  Jersey  boar. 

the  corn  belt  farmer.  In  size  the  Duroc  Jerseys  do  not 
differ  materially  from  the  Poland  Chinas  and  Chester 
Whites,  but  they  usually  possess  greater  substance  than 
the  former  (Fig.  141).  They  conform  closely  to  the  fat 
hog  type  in  shape,  being  low,  broad  and  deep,  with  very 
full,  yet  smooth,  hams  and  shoulders.  The  head  is  of 
medium  size;  the  snout  of  medium  length,  the  face 
very  slightly  dished,  the  ears  of  medium  size  and  arching 


THE  li REEDS   OF  SWINE 


289 


gradually  forward,  the  jowl  heavy  and  full,  like  the  hams, 
shoulders  and  body  all  through.  Color  is  red,  the  cherry 
shade  preferred,  although  the  best  shades  grow  lighter 
with  age.  Dark  spots  are  sometimes  seen  under  the  belly 
and  on  the  legs  and  too  many  are  objected  to.  As  a  rule 
the  bone  is  especially  heavy. 

A  general  lack  of  refinement,  shown  especially  in  creases 
and  wrinkles  along  the  sides,  has  been  charged  against 
some  individuals  of  this  breed. 


r  White  boar. 


301.  The  Chester  White.  —  This  breed,  largely  of 
Yorkshire  extraction  in  the  beginning,  was  formerly  con- 
sidered one  of  the  three  largest  breeds,  but  it  ranks  now 
with  the  Poland  China  and  Duroc  Jersey  in  size  (Fig. 
142).  Its  form  is  characterized  by  more  length  than  in 
either  of  the  two  breeds  mentioned  and  it  is  not,  therefore, 
as  uniformly  wide,  nor  as  well  filled  in  the  hams  as  they  are. 
The  head  is  of  medium  size,  the  face  long  but  straight, 


290  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

the  ears  large,  falling  gradually  forward,  sometimes  in  a 
careless  fashion.  Color  is  white,  although  bluish  black 
skin  spots  are  not  unusual.  The  pigment  must  be  con- 
fined to  the  skin,  however,  the  hair  growing  from  them 
being  white,  and,  even  then,  too  many  spots  are  objec- 
tionable. 

On  account  of  their  length  many  Chester  Whites  mani- 
fest a  tendency  to  be  wide  in  front  and  gradually  narrow 


FIG.  143.  —  A  Hampshire  boar. 

toward  the  hindquarters.  Coarseness,  noticeable  espe- 
cially in  heavy,  lop  ears,  prominent  shoulders,  and  a 
rough,  curly  coat  of  hair,  is  a  fair  objection  to  some 
individuals. 

302.  The  Hampshire.  —  This  breed,  formerly  called 
Thin  Rind,  has  been  classed  as  of  both  fat  and  bacon 
type,  but  barrows  of  this  breed  have  been  shown  most 
often  in  fat  classes.  Typical  representatives  (Fig.  143) 
weigh  somewhat  less  than  those  of  the  other  fat  breeds 


THE  BREEDS   OF  SWINE 


291 


and  their  form  is  less  extreme.  In  fact,  in  length  and 
width  of  body  and  fullness  of  hams  and  shoulders  they  are 
intermediate  as  to  type.  The  head  is  somewhat  elongated, 
the  face  straight  and  tapering,  the  ears  erect  but  directed 
forward.  Color  is  the  most  striking  feature  of  Hamp- 
shire hogs,  although  it  is  not  fixed  by  any  means.  That 
desired  is  a  white  belt  clearly  defined  on  an  otherwise 
black  body.  The  belt  is  sometimes  missing,  however,  solid 


FIG.   144.  —  A  Yorkshire  sow. 

black  colors  occurring  in  litters  where  some  of  the  pigs,  like 
the  parents,  are  belted.  Quality  is  usually  conspicuous  in 
Hampshires,  they  bejng  smooth  and  fine. 

303.  The  Yorkshire.  —  The  Large  Improved  Yorkshire 
is  the  only  representative  of  this  breed  with  which  Ameri- 
can hog  growers  are  much  concerned.  This  is  one  of  the 
oldest  breeds  of  swine,  and  earliest  references  to  it  indicate 
that  it  was  then,  as  now,  notable  for  size,  boars  and  even 
sows  weighing  1000  pounds  (Fig.  144).  Yorkshire  form 


292 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


is  strictly  bacon,  being  characterized  by  length  and  depth 
of  side,  balanced  by  an  absence  of  width  and  fullness 
throughout,  the  neck,  shoulders  and  hindquarters  being 
thin,  light  and  tapering.  The  head  is  of  medium  length, 
the  snout  only  slightly  dished,  not  turned  up,  the  ears 
large  but  fine,  shapely,  well  set  and  carried  erect,  the  jowl 
muscular  but  firm.  Color  is  white,  bluish  spots  in  the 
skin  only  being  permissible  but  rather  objectionable  as  in 


FIG.  145.  —  A  Tamworth  sow. 


the  case  of  the  Chester  White.  Quality  in  bone,  hair  and 
general  refinement  is  characteristic  of  this  breed. 

A  short,  under-shot  snout,  heavy,  lop  ears,  a  narrow, 
weak  loin,  and  too  much  length  of  leg  are  the  defects  most 
commonly  noted  in  this  breed. 

304.  The  Tamworth.  —  This  is  also  a  very  old  and 
probably  pure  breed,  the  original  characters  of  which  have 
been  perpetuated  and  modified  along  the  line  of  bacon 


THE  BREEDS  OF  SWINE  293 

production.  After  the  Yorkshire,  this  is  the  largest  of  the 
breeds.  Its  form  is  even  more  extremely  rangy,  long 
and  narrow  than  the  Yorkshire,  with  a  very  light  neck, 
jowl  and  hindquarters  (Fig.  145).  The  head  is  long  and 
tapering,  the  longest  of  any  breed,  the  snout  straight, 
there  being  little  or  no  dish  in  the  face,  the  ears  very 
large,  but  well  pointed  and  thin.  Color  is  cherry  red,  with 
no  spots,  but  it  is  inclined  to  darken  rather  than  grow 
lighter  with  age.  This  breed  is  especially  active  and  strong 
on  its  legs. 

Extremes  of  type,  too  long  legs,  light  hindquarters, 
especially,  and  too  much  weight  in  front,  due  to  excessive 
length  of  head,  prominent  shoulders  and  a  coarse  coat  are 
the  exceptions  taken  to  this  breed. 


PART  VII 
JUDGING   BREEDING  ANIMALS 


295 


CHAPTER  XVII 
BREEDING  STOCK 

SALES  and  show  classifications  both  distinguish  between 
market  and  breeding  animals.  The  former  are  quite 
generally  unsexed  and  command  consideration  only  for 
what  they  themselves  are.  Breeding  animals,  on  the 
other  hand,  have  more  than  an  intrinsic  worth,  they  are 
the  progenitors  of  future  generations  to  whom  are  to  be 
transmitted  the  characters  of  a  numerous  ancestry. 
Therefore,  breeding  animals  should  not  be  judged  merely 
as  individuals,  but  as  representatives  of  an  ancestry 
whose  influence  will  dominate  the  succeeding  generations 
of  which  they  are  the  progenitors. 

306.  In  the  selection  of  breeding  animals  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  they  do  not  represent,  in  their  physical 
make-up,  all  the  characters  which  they  have  inherited,  nor 
yet  all  the  characters  which  they  are  capable  of  trans- 
mitting. Thus,  the  failure  in  the  stud  of  some  show- 
ring  champions  can  be  accounted  for,  likewise  the  superior 
value,  as  sires,  of  some  individuals,  themselves  incapable 
of  winning  most  humble  honors  in  the  show  ring. 

306.  The  successful  sire  or  dam  is  the  one  which  will 
produce,  regularly,  progeny  of  uniform  excellence,  true  to 
type  and  possessing  constitutional  vigor  sufficient  to  in- 
sure their  living  productive  and  reproductive  lives  (Figs. 
146  and  147). 

Reproduction  has  been  termed  a  superabundant  de- 
297 


298 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


velopment,  by  which  we  infer  that  an  animal  may  be 
fully  developed,  as  an  individual,  yet  incapable  of  repro- 
duction, the  latter  being  over  and  above  normal  individual 
development.  Therefore,  stock  animals  should  have  size, 


FIG.  146.  —  Percheron  yearlings  whose  sire  i*  shown  as  Figure  71 .  They 
manifest  uniform  excellence  transmitted  by  the  superior  sire  of  marked 
prepotency,  as  well  as  the  characters  desired  in  colts  of  this  age. 


and   be   well-developed    individuals   in   order    that    the 
"  super  "  function  may  be  most  manifest. 

307.    Prepotency.  —  In  the  selection  of  breeding  stock 
the  pedigree  is  of  greatest  importance,  yet  the  individual 


BREEDING    STOCK 


299 


2     III 


300  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

only  is  to  be  considered  in  show-ring  judging.  However, 
a  superior  ancestry  may  be  evidenced  by  character  and 
breediness,  manifested  in  the  head  and  neck  especially. 


FIG.   148.  —  Sex  and  breed  character  in  the  stallion. 

While  it  is  true  that  an  individual  may  transmit  characters 
which  he  himself  does  not  manifest  and  he  may  fail  to 


BREEDING   STOCK 


301 


transmit  characters  which  are  incorporated  in  his  make-up, 
there  is  greater  likelihood  of  certain  characters,  good  or 
bad,  appearing  or  not  appearing  in  the  offspring,  if  they 
are  or  are  not  present  in  the  parents.  Therefore,  the  type 


FIG.   149.  —  Sex  and  breed  character  in  the  bull . 

and  individuality  desired  in  the  progeny  should  be  well 
marked  in  the  parents.  It  is  one  thing  to  possess  merit, 
quite  another  to  transmit  it.  The  force  with  which  the 
characters  of  one  or  the  other  of  the  parents  are  impressed 


302 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


upon  their  offspring  constitutes  prepotency,  and  pre- 
potency, as  well  as  virility,  is  indicated  by  strong  sex 
character — masculinity  in  the  male  and  femininity  in  the 
female. 

308.    Masculinity  (Figs.  148  and   149) .— The  evidence 
of  masculinity  is  noted  in  the  forehand  or  quarter,  which 


Fiu.  150.  — A 


is  especially  well  developed,  the  heavy-crested  neck,  the 
strong-featured  countenance,  the  bold  demeanor,  and  even 
the  voice  all  betokening  the  sire.  It  has  been  amply 
demonstrated,  in  practice,  that  the  male  which  is  wanting 
in  these  features,  whose  head  and  neck  are  not  markedly 
different  from  those  of  the  female,  is  no  stock  getter  at  all, 


BREEDING   STOCK  303 

or  else  he  is  a  very  indifferent  breeder,  in  so  far  as  any  pre- 
potency is  concerned. 

309.  Femininity  (Fig.  150)  is  naturally  characterized  in 
the  opposite  manner.    It  implies,  primarily,  a  total  absence 
of  any  masculine  character.    Hence,  the  forequarters  of  the 
female  are  light,  fine  and  undeveloped ;   the  hindquarters, 
on  the  contrary,  are  broad,  the  head  is  proportionately 
smaller,  the  expression  of  the  countenance  sweeter,  and 
the  manner  more  demure.     "  Staggy  "  females  are  not 
regular  nor  satisfactory  breeders,  as  a  rule,  and  an  extreme 
manifestation  of  masculine  character  in  the  female  may 
be  associated  with  hermaphrodism. 

310.  Form  in  breeding   animals.  —  There   are  special 
features  of  form  in  addition  to  the  sex  characters  which 
may  distinguish  the  male  from  the  female  (Fig.  151).     It 
is  generally  conceded  that  the  male   animal   should  be 
larger  than  the  female,  although  there  are  many  instances 
in  nature  to  contradict  this  theory.      The  form  of  the 
male  is  more  compact,  the  female,  since  she  is  to  be  host 
to  the  developing  f  O3tus  as  well  as  contributing  her  share 
of  the  hereditary  material,  being  more  roomy  and  capa- 
cious of  middle,  longer  in  back,  more  open  in  the  flank, 
and   broader  across    the   hips    and   buttock,   the   latter 
features  insuring  safe  and  comparatively  easy  delivery  of 
the  young. 

311.  Constitution  in  breeding  animals.  —  Constitution 
is  the  last  word  in  either  production  or  reproduction.     It 
limits  the  extent  to  which  inherent  possibilities  may  be 
realized.     No  matter  how  much  speed  or  power,  milki- 
ness  or  beefiness,  horses  or  cattle  are  endowed  with,  they 
cannot  perform  or  produce  to  the  full  capacity  of  their 
endowment  unless  they  have  the  stamina  and  constitu- 
tional vigor  upon  which  to  base  such  performance  or  pro- 


304 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


BREEDING   STOCK 


305 


duct  ion.  It  is  essential  that  there  should  be  transmitted, 
in  addition  to  the  characters  desired,  all  the  constitutional 
vigor  that  will  be  required  to  insure  maximum  attainment 
along  the  line  of  that  character.  Nothing  will  impair  pro- 
duction nor  prohibit  reproduction  of  successive  genera- 
tions and  the  perpetuation  of  the  stock  without  deterio- 
ration more  than  weak  constitution.  Hence,  all  other 


Fiu.   152.  —  A  typical  dairy  bull,  masculine  yet  refined,  of  true  dairy 
type  and  possessing  unusual  breed  character.     (3  yr.  old  form.) 

attributes  essential  in  breeding  animals  may  count  for 
naught  unless  associated,  in  the  sire  or  dam,  with  a 
strong  constitution. 

312.  Substance  in  breeding  animals.  —  Substance  is 
more  essential  than  quality  in  most  breeding  animals, 
especially  the  males.  It  is  a  serious  fault  for  any  stud 
animal  to  be  undersized,  or  too  fine  in  bone.  Ruggedness 
in  males  is  more  desirable  than  extreme  finish. 
x 


306  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

With  these  exceptions,  the  judging  of  breeding  classes 
is  conducted  along  the  same  general  lines  as  described  for 
the  market  and  breed  types.  The  beef  bull  should  be  the 
masculine  personification  of  the  butcher  steer,  while  the 
dairy  bull  (Fig.  152)  should  conform,  as  closely  as  it  is 
possible  for  a  male  to  do,  to  the  milky  form  of  the  dairy 
cow.  Most  judges  even  attach  importance  to  the  size 
and  placing  of  the  rudimentary  teats  of  the  dairy  bull. 
What  is  analogous  to  the  crest  of  the  stallion  and  bull  is 
designated  the  scrag  in  the  ram  and  the  shield  in  the  boar. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
LIVE-STOCK  SHOWS 

STRESS  has  already  been  laid  on  the  fact  that  the  selec- 
tion of  breeding  stock  is  a  more  important  phase  of  the 
judging  of  animals  than  that  which  is  done  in  the  show 
ring.  The  great,  even  though  lesser,  importance  of  the 
latter  should  not  be  underestimated,  however.  The  show 
ring  has  been  a  most  influential  agency  in  promoting  the 
live-stock  interests  and  in  improving  the  class  of  stock 
bred. 

313.  The  benefits  of  the  stock  show  concern  two 
classes  of  people,  those  who  show  and  those  who  go.  To 
the  former,  it  constitutes  the  best  advertising  medium 
available.  There  is  no  better  means  of  getting  one's 
stock  before  those  people  to  whom  it  is  of  greatest  interest. 
It  furnishes,  to  the  exhibitors,  also,  an  excellent  oppor- 
tunity to  indulge  in  a  most  wholesome  competition,  and 
finally,  although  of  least  importance  after  a  full  accounting 
is  taken,  it  may  be  a  source  of  revenue  in  cash  prizes. 

Those  who  go  to  the  shows  in  the  capacity  of  spectators 
only,  derive  merely  entertainment  in  return  for  their 
admission  fee,  but  there  are  usually  in  attendance  at  the 
shows  a  great  many  stock  men  whose  singleness  of  pur- 
pose is  to  learn  of  live  stock.  To  these  the  show  is  a 
great  exposition  of  market  and  breed  types;  of  most 
approved  systems  of  breeding  and  methods  of  feeding. 
It  affords  inspiration  to  the  ambitious  stock  man,  then 
demonstrates  the  best  means  of  attaining  success.  This 
307 


308 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


LIVE-STOCK  SHOWS  309 

educational  feature  is  being  appreciated  more  and  more 
and  is  given  greater  prominence  at  the  leading  shows  each 
year.  In  general  the  show  stimulates  interest  in  live  stock. 

314.  Show  classification.  —  There  are  two  great  divi- 
sions of  all  show  classes :  Market  and  Breeding. 

Classification  within  the  market  division  is  made  on 
the  basis  of  type,  and  all  entries  of  a  type  may  be 
further  classified  as  to  age,  weight,  height  or  sex. 

Breeding  classes  are  provided  for  each  of  the  recognized 
breeds,  each  breed  group  being  subclassified  as  to  sex  and 
finally  on  the  basis  of  age  for  each  of  the  sexes. 

There  are  usually  offered,  in  addition,  special  classes  for 
get  of  sire,  produce  of  dam,  groups,  herds  and  pens,  both 
owned  or  bred  by  the  exhibitor.  Then  there  are  cham- 
pionships decided  among  the  first,  and  usually  the  second, 
prize  winners  in  class,  and  finally  a  grand  championship 
for  the  winner  among  champions. 

316.  Market  division,  Horses. — The  bases  upon  which 
market  horses  are  classified  and  shown  have  been  given 
in  connection  with  the  market  classes  of  horses  —  such 
a  variety  of  classes  within  specified  weights,  heights  and 
"Performance  only  to  count"  or  "Performance  60%, 
conformation,  quality,  and  manners  40%,"  as  to  make  a 
detailed  list  unnecessary  here  (Figs.  153  and  154). 

316.  Market  division,  Fat  classes. «—  The  fat  classes  of 
the  market  division  for  the  breeds  and  their  grades  and 
cross-breeds  are  as  follows: 

Cattle. 

Steer,  spayed  or  martin  heifer,  calved  since  January  1 
of  the  second  year  preceding  the  year  of  the  show. 

Steer,  spayed  or  martin  heifer,  one  year  and  under  two. 

Steer,  spayed  or  martin  heifer,  under  one  year. 

A  lot  consists  of  three  head,  representing  each  age. 


310 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


M 


t  LIVE-STOCK  SHOWS  311 

Sheep. 

Wether,  one  year  and  under  two. 

Wether  lamb. 

Pen  of  five  wether  lambs. 
Swine. 

Barrow,  under  six  months. 

Barrow,  over  six  months  and  under  twelve. 

Barrow,  over  twelve  months  and  under  eighteen. 

A  pen  consists  of  three  barrows. 

317.  Breeding  classes,    Horses    (Fig.    155).— The  fol- 
lowing classes  are  offered  for  each  of  the  representative 
breeds : 

Stallion,  four  years  old  or  over. 
Stallion,  three  and  under  four. 
Stallion,  two  and  under  three. 
Stallion,  one  and  under  two. 
Stallion  foal. 

Brood  mare,  four  years  old  or  over.1 
Brood  mare,  three  and  under  four. 
Brood  mare,  two  and  under  three. 
Brood  mare,  one  and  under  two. 
Filly  foal. 

318.  Breeding  classes,  Beef  cattle  (Fig.  156).  — The  fol- 
lowing classes  are  offered  for  each  of  the  representative 
breeds : 

Bull,  three  years  old  or  over. 
Bull,  two  and  under  three. 

Senior  yearling  bull,  calved  between  September  1  and 
January  1  of  the  year  pfeceding  the  year  of  the  show. 
Junior  yearling  bull,  calved   between   January  1  and 

1  The  International  Clydesdale  Classification  provides  for  yeld  mares, 
i.e.  neither  in  foal  nor  suckling. 


312 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 


LIVE-STOCK  SHOWS 


313 


314  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

September  1  of  the  year  preceding  the  year  of  the 
show. 

Senior  bull  calf,  calved  between  September  1  and 
January  1  of  the  year  of  the  show. 

Junior  bull  calf,  calved  since  January  1  of  the  year  of 
the  show. 

Cow,  three  years  old  or  over. 

Cow  or  heifer,  two  and  under  three. 

Senior  yearling  heifer,  calved  between  September  1  and 
January  1  of  the  year  preceding  the  year  of  the  show. 

Junior  yearling  heifer,  calved  between  January  1  and 
September  1  of  the  year  preceding  the  year  of  the  show. 

Senior  heifer  calf,  calved  between  September  1  and 
January  1  of  the  year  of  the  show. 

Junior  heifer  calf,  calved  since  January  1  of  the  year 
of  the  show. 

319.  Breeding  classes,  Dairy  cattle  (Fig.  157).  — The 
following  classes  are  offered  for  each  of  the  representative 
breeds : 

Bull,  three  years  old  or  over. 

Bull,  two  and  under  three. 

Bull,  one  and  under  two. 

Bull  calf,  six  months  old  and  under  twelve  months. 

Bull  calf,  under  six  months. 

Cow,  five  years  old  or  over. 

Cow,  four  and  under  five. 

Cow,  three  and  under  four. 

Heifer,  two  and  under  three. 

Heifer  not  in  milk,  eighteen  months  old  and  under  two 
years. 

Heifer  not  in  milk,  one  year  old  and  under  eighteen  months. 

Heifer  calf,  six  months  old  and  under  twelve  months. 

Heifer  calf,  under  six  months. 


LIVE-STOCK  SHOWS 


315 


316  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

Aged  herd  consists  of  one  bull,  two  or  over,  one  cow 
or  heifer,  two  and  under  three,  one  heifer,  one  and  under 
two,  and  one  heifer  under  one  year  (Fig.  158). 

Young  herd  consists  of  one  bull  under  two,  two  heifers, 
one  and  under  two,  and  two  heifers  under  one  year. 

Calf  herd  consists  of  one  bull  and  two  heifers  all  under 
one  year  and  bred  by  exhibitor. 

320.  Breeding  classes,  Sheep.  —  The  following  classes 
are  offered  for  each  of  the  representative  breeds : 

Ram,  two  years  or  over. 
Ram,  one  and  under  two. 
Ram  lamb,  under  one  year. 
Ewe,  one  year  and  under  two. 
Ewe  lamb,  under  one  year. 

A  flock  consists  of  one  ram,  one  year  old  or  over,  two 
yearling  ewes  and  two  ewe  lambs. 

321.  Breeding  classes,  Swine.  —  The  following  classes 
are  offered  for  each  of  the  representative  breeds : 

Boar,  two  years  old  or  over. 
Boar,  eighteen  months  and  under  twenty-four. 
Boar,  twelve  months  and  under  eighteen. 
Boar,  six  months  and  under  twelve. 
Boar,  under  six  months. 
Sow,  two  years  or  over. 

Sow,  eighteen  months  and  under  twenty-four. 
Sow,  twelve  months  and  under  eighteen. 
Sow,  six  months  and  under  twelve. 
Sow,  under  six  months. 

There  are  also  shown  pens  of  one  boar  and  three 
sows. 

322.  Age  basis.  —  All  ages  are  reckoned  from  January 
first  except  in  the  senior  yearling  and  calf  classes.     Their 
ages  date  from  September  first,  preceding. 


LIVE-STOCK  SHOWS 


317 


318 


LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

MANNER  OF  SHOWING 


The  judge  should  have  a  thorough  understanding  of 
the  customary  manner  of  showing  the  various  classes  of 
animals. 

323.  Horses.  —  The  market  classes  of  horses  are  shown 
in  harness  or  under  saddle,  in  accordance  with  their 


FIG.  159.  — Showing  in  hand. 

specific  class  requirements.  Exception  is  made  in  the 
case  of  drafters,  which,  in  addition  to  being  shown  in 
single,  pair,  three,  four  and  six  horse  hitches,  are  also 
shown  to  halter. 

Horses  in  the  breeding  division  are,  without  exception, 


LIVE-STOCK  SHOWS  319 

shown  "  in  hand"  (Fig.  159),  either  to  halter  or  lead  bridle 
in  the  case  of  draft  and  saddle  horses,  beside  or  in  front  of 
a  saddle  pony  if  trotters  or  pacers,  and  usually  on  a  long 
lounge  rein  in  the  hand  of  a  foot  runner  in  the  instance  of 
Hackneys  and  Coach  horses.  It  is  preferable  that  horses 
so  shown  should  not  be  prompted,  but  the  Clydesdale  show 
men  are  about  the  only  ones  to  evince  any  regard  for  this 
preference.  Prompting  is  frequently  grossly  overdone  in 
the  showing  of  draft  horses  and  Hackneys,  the  voice,  whip 
and  all  sorts  of  noisy  contrivances  being  resorted  to. 

Horses  are  led  from  the  near  side  except  when  shown 
on  the  long  rein,  as  Hackneys  are.  Then  the  horse  is  run 
up  to  the  rail  of  the  ring  with  the  runner  on  his  left,  re- 
versed and  brought  back  with  the  rein  over  his  back  and 
the  runner  on  his  right  and  a  little  behind  him. 

Harness  and  saddle  horses  are  driven  or  ridden  well 
into  the  corners  of  the  show  ring,  in  order  to  make  as 
much  of  the  straight-away  as  possible,  and  are  usually 
called  upon  to  work  both  ways  of  the  ring  for  the  purpose 
of  obviating  any  deviation  in  the  stride  which  may  be 
due  to  taking  the  turns ;  also  to  enable  the  judge  to  see 
both  horses  of  a  pair,  or  the  saddle  horse  cantering  on 
both  leads. 

The  special  requirements  of  the  service  under  which 
the  horse  is  classed  should  be  borne  in  mind  by  the  judge. 
Work  and  station  wagon  horses  should  be  handy  in  back- 
ing up  to  a  platform,  real  or  imaginary ;  runabout  horses 
should  stand  without  hitching ;  and  saddle  horses  should 
stand  to  be  mounted. 

Drafters  and  saddle  horses  are  shown  at  the  walk,  as 
well  as  at  the  trot,  and  the  other  saddle  gaits  in  the  case 
of  the  latter,  while  harness  horses  are  rarely,  if  ever, 
walked.  Entries  in  roadster  classes  are  expected  to  show 


320  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

as  much  speed  as  is  possible  in  a  small  ring,  while  high 
steppers  show  at  a  park  gait  of  eight  to  twelve  miles, 
unless  "  pace  and  action  "  are  specified.  All  horses  are 
required  to  stand  in  pose  either  squarely  on  their  feet  or 
camped. 

Performance  alone  may  count,  or,  in  addition,  confor- 
mation, quality,  manners  and  appointments,  proportion- 
ately, as  specified  in  the  catalogue. 

324.  "  Vetting."  —  Veterinary  examination  may  be  re- 
quired before  the  horses  are  shown,  a  report  of  which  is 
to  be  furnished  to  the  judge  when  the  class  is  called,  or 
they  may  be  shown  subject  to  disqualification,  in  case 
they  manifest  unsoundness  in  the  ring.  Unsoundness 
detected  or  suspected  in  the  show  ring  by  the  judge  is 
usually  referred  to  the  official  veterinarian,  whose  rulings 
are  final.  Also,  measurements  and  determination  of  age, 
as  in  the  breeding  classes,  are  settled  by  the  veterinarian 
and  the  entries  qualified  or  disqualified  upon  this  basis. 

Cattle.  Methods  and  practices  differ  sufficiently  in  the 
showing  of  beef  and  dairy  cattle  to  warrant  separate  con- 
sideration of  them. 

326.  Beef  cattle,  in  the  steer  and  cow  classes,  are 
shown  in  halters,  unless  a  particularly  unruly  one  re- 
quires a  ring  in  his  nose,  while  bulls  are  regularly  led  by 
a  ring  in  which  a  strap  is  snapped. 

The  coats  of  beef  cattle  receive  special  preparation. 
Both  sexes  of  those  breeds  which  have  a  sufficiently  long 
and  heavy  coat,  as  the  Short-horn,  Hereford  and  Galloway, 
together  with  their  pure  bred  and  grade  steers,  are  shown 
rough,  i.e.  with  the  hair  washed  out  and  then  brushed  or 
combed  the  wrong  way  or  arranged  in  some  fantastic 
design.  Showing  rough  enables  a  clever  show  man  to 
overcome  the  appearance  of  many  defects,  roughing  the 


LIVE-STOCK  SHOWS  321 

coat  especially  where  there  may  be  a  slack  spot,  as  in  the 
crops,  while  smoothing  it  down  upon  or  roughing  round 
about  any  undue  coarseness  or  prominence.  Angus  breed- 
ing cattle,  as  a  rule,  are  shown  smooth  while  their  grade 
steers  are  usually  shown  rough  if  they  have  enough  hair. 

Some  beef  cattle,  especially  the  smoother  coated  ones, 
are  trimmed  about  the  ears  and  poll,  while  the  horns  are 
generally  rubbed  and  polished  to  a  fine  finish.  Their 
coats  are  thoroughly  groomed,  usually  blanketed,  their 
switches  washed  and  picked  out,  egg  shampoos  and  every- 
thing possible  being  resorted  to  that  might  enhance  the 
handling  quality  of  the  hide  and  hair. 

Cattle  are  taught  to  stand  squarely  on  their  feet,  a 
careless  position  often  giving  the  appearance  of  a  low  back 
or  some  other  physical  defect,  while  a  special  pose  may 
improve  the  appearance  of  certain  lines  very  materially. 
Also,  carrying  the  head  to  one  side  or  the  other  may  alter 
the  handling.  They  are  taught  to  lead  promptly  so  as  to 
make  the  best  appearance  when  asked  to  move  about. 

Even  breeding  beef  cattle  are  shown  in  high  condition, 
about  as  fat  as  they  can  be  made  without  being  overdone. 

326.  Dairy  cattle.  —  Cows  are  shown  in  halters,  while 
bulls  are  led  with  rings  in  their  noses  and  almost  in- 
variably by  means  of  staffs.  The  coats  of  dairy  cattle  of 
both  sexes  are  shown  as  sleek  as  they  can  be  made  with- 
out removing  the  secretions.  Their  heads,  ears  and  tails 
are  clipped,  horns  polished  and  switches  carefully  hair 
dressed. 

The  too  common  practice  of  "  stretching  "  udders  by 
deferred  milking  is  a  practice  not  to  be  countenanced. 
Dairy  cattle  are  taught  to  pose  in  that  position  which 
shows  their  lines  and  features  to  best  advantage. 

Regular  trimming  of  the  feet  of  all  cattle  is  necessary  in 


322  LIVE-STOCK  JUDGING 

order  to  enable  them  to  stand  well.  Too  long  a  toe,  for 
instance,  will  throw  an  animal  down  on  his  dew  claws,  put- 
ting every  joint  on  a  tension  and  the  leg  in  an  unnatural 
position. 

327.  Sheep  are  led  by  placing  the  left  hand  under  or 
partly  around  the  neck,  with  the  right  tickling  the 
tail  just  enough  to  induce  them  to  step  forward,  standing, 
of  course,  on  the  left  side,  the  same  as  in  handling  any 
other  animal.  They  are  held  by  one  hand  under  the  jaw, 
the  other  free  to  be  passed  to  the  back  of  the  head  or  to 
the  dock,  in  case  it  becomes  necessary  to  steady  the 
sheep,  or  to  assist,  in  any  other  way,  keeping  him  in  pose. 

Trimming  is  the  universal  practice  among  shepherds 
and  is  defended  on  the  ground  that  there  is  no  deception 
practiced,  since  none  but  a  most  incompetent  judge 
would  be  influenced  by  the  appearance  of  the  clipped 
fleece,  while  it  does  have  the  advantage  of  greatly  improv- 
ing the  looks  of  the  sheep  while  on  exhibition.  It  has 
been  suggested  by  one  of  our  leading  authorities  l  that  it 
is  as  becoming  for  sheep  to  be  trimmed  as  for  "  Men  and 
women  to  wear  their  best  clothes  when  going  to  a  party." 
Some  shepherds  display  great  cleverness  in  the  trimming 
of  their  sheep,  overcoming  the  appearance  of  a  low  back 
or  a  light  hindquarter,  for  instance,  in  a  most  ingenious 
way. 

The  fleece  is  washed  before  trimming,  then  dried  out 
to  render  it  fluffy  and  bright.  Cotted  portions  may 
be  combed  out  after  having  been  softened  with  olive 
oil.  After  the  fleece  of  the  sheep  has  been  carefully  pre- 
pared for  the  show  ring  by  washing  and  trimming  it  is 
usually  protected  by  a  duck  blanket,  hood  and  all,  in  the 
case  of  those  breeds  which  are  wooled  on  the  face. 
1  Kleinheinz,  "  Sheep  Management." 


LIVE-STOCK  SHOWS  323 

Coloring  the  fleece,  while  common,  is  not  so  generally 
practiced  as  trimming,  and  for  less  satisfactory  reasons. 
Ochre  is  used,  and  the  color  is  usually  yellow,  although 
red  and  even  brown  are  sometimes  employed.  If  the  skin 
and  fleece  of  the  sheep  are  in  proper  condition,  their  ap- 
pearance is  not  improved  by  the  addition  of  any  coloring. 

Much  time  is  spent  by  shepherds  in  training  their  sheep 
to  stand  well  while  being  shown,  not  only  to  remain  quiet 
and  permit  of  handling  by  the  judge  but  so  as  to  display 
their  good  points  to  greatest  advantage.  In  order  to 
stand  well  their  feet  must  be  trimmed  and  their  pasterns 
strong  to  keep  them  up  on  their  toes. 

328.  Swine.  —  Since  hogs  are  not  taken  in  hand,  but 
merely  kept  within  bounds  by  means  of  hurdles  or  paddles, 
the  manner  of  showing  is  practiced  by  the  hog  himself, 
rather  than  by  the  man  who  has  him  on  exhibition.  A 
hog  with  style  will  show  himself  and  such  a  one,  of  the 
right  sort,  well  fitted,  has  had  about  all  done  for  him  that 
can  be  done  when  he  enters  the  ring.  It  is  customary  to 
wash  them  thoroughly  and  brush  them  smooth,  oil,  and 
even  lamp  black,  in  the  case  of  black  hogs,  being  added 
to  enhance  their  sleek  appearance. 


APPENDIX 

RECORD    PERFORMANCES    AND  PRODUCTION 

WORLD'S  TROTTING  AND  PACING  RECORDS1 

Trotting 
Trotting — Distance  Records 

mile  (mare  to  wagon,  straightaway)     -  Lou  Dillon  (1903) :  25} 

mile  (gelding  to  wagon,  straightaway)  —  Uhlan  (1913) :  a6i 

mile  (to  sulky)  —  Uhlan,  blk.  g..  by  Bingen  (1913) :  27 

mile  (to  wagon)  —  Uhlan,  blk.  g.,  7,  by  Bingen  (1911) :  56i 

mile  (to  sulky)  —  Major  Delmar,  b.  g.,  7  (1904) :  59 J 

mile  —  Uhlan,  blk.  g.,  8,  by  Bingen  (1912) *1 :  58 

1&  miles  —  Masetto,  blk.    g.,    by  Constantine    (1904) ....'. 2  :  17i 

It  miles  —  Major  Delmar,  b.  g.,  5,  by  Delmar  (1902) 2 :  22* 

1J  —  Lily  Young,  ch.  m.,  11,  by  Young  Fullerton  (1902) 2:  44J 

1 J  miles  —  Dr.  Strong,  gr.  g.,  6,  by  Strong  Boy  (1903) 3:  17| 

2  miles  — The  Harvester,  br.  h.,  6,  by  Walnut  Hall  (1910)   (1st  mile 

2  :  08J,  2d  mile  2  :  08 J) *4  :  151 

(The  fastest  2-mile  race  record  was  made  in  Europe  by  Kirkwood,  Jr., 
br.  h..  10,  by  Silverthorne,  1897,  in  4  :  26&.) 

3  miles  —  Nightingale,  ch.  in.,  8,  by  Mambrino  King  (1893)  (1st  mile 

2 :  22,  2d  mile  2 :  19,  3d  mile  2  :  14i) 6 :  55i 

4  miles  —  Senator  L.,  b.  h.,  6,  by  Dexter  Prince  (1894) *10 :  12 

(The  above  record  was  excelled  in  England  in  1899  by  Polly  G., 
American  name  Bertie  R.,  2 :  12J,  time  9 :  58.) 

5  miles  —  Zombro,  b.  s.,  5,  by  McKinney  (1902)  (in  race) 12 :  24 

6  miles  —  Longtime,  b.  g.,  untraced  (1893) 16 :  00 

10  miles  —  Pascal,  blk.  g.,  by  Pascarel  (1893) 26:  15 

18  miles  —  Bill,  ch.  g.,  untraced  (1885) 58 :  10 

20  miles  —  Capt.  McGowan,  ro.  h.,  untraced  (1865) -.      58 :  25 

30  miles  —  Gen.  Taylor,  gr.  h.,  10,  by  Morse  Horse  (1857) 1 :  47 :  59 

50  miles  —  Ariel,  br.  m.,  untraced  (1846) 3 :  55 :  40J 

100  —  Conqueror,  b.  g.,  11,  by  Latourette's  Bellfounder  (1853) 8:  55:  33 

Fastest  Trotters  for  Sex  and  Age 

Stallion  —  The  Harvester,  br.,  5,  by  Walnut  Hall  (1910) *2 :  01 

Mare  —  Lou  Dillon,  ch.,  5,  by  Sidney  Dillon  (1903) **1 :  58i 

Gelding  —  Uhlan,  blk.  g.,  8,  by  Bingen  (1912) *1 : 58 

1  A  novel  feature  of  this  table  is  that  it  is  truly  a  table  of  "  world's "  records. 
When  a  foreign  record  excells  an  American  record,  notice  is  made  of  the  fact. 
The  lines  in  black-faced  type  are  the  new  world's  records  made  in  1913.  A  star  * 
indicates  a  performance  against  time.  A  double  star  **  indicates  a  performance 
against  time  behind  a  wind  shield.  —  Compiled  by  The  Horseman,  Chicago  111. 

325 


326  APPENDIX 


Yearling  colt  —  Airdale,  b.  c.,  by  Tregantle  (1912) *2 : 15f 

Yearling  filly  —  Miss  Stokes,  b.  f.,  by  Peter  the  Great  (1909) *2 : 19  i 

Two-year-old  colt  — •  Peter  Volo,  br.,  by  Peter  the  Great  (1913) 2 :  045 

Two-year-old  filly  —  Native  Belle,  b.  f.,  by  Moko  (1909) 2  :  07  f 

Two-year-old  gelding  —  Judge     Jones,  by  Prodigal    (1913),   and   Bon 

Courage,  by  Bon  Voyage  (1913) 2 :  12 f 

Three-year-old  colt  —  Colorado  E.,  b.,  by  The  Bondsman  (1910) 2 :  04 f 

Three-year-old  filly  —  Native  Belle,  b.,  by  Moko  (1910) *2 :  06 £ 

Three-year-old  gelding  —  Peter  Thompson,  b.,  by  Peter  the  Great  (1911)  2 :  07  J 

Four-year-old  colt  —  Directum,  blk.,  by  Director  (1893) 2  :  Ooi 

Four-year-old  filly  —  Joan,  br.,  by  Directum  Spier  (1910) 2 :  04J 

Four-year-old  gelding  —  Uhlan,  blk.,  by  Bingen  (1908) 2  :  07 i 

Five-year-old  mare  —  Lou  Dillon,  ch.,  by  Sidney  Dillon  (1903) *1 :  58  i 

Five-year-old  stallion  —  The  Harvester,  br.,  by  Walnut  Hall  (1910) ....  *2 :  01 

Five-year-old  gelding  —  Uhlan,  blk.,  by  Bingen  (1909) *2  :  02 i 

Green  mare  —  Lou  Dillon,  ch.  m.,  5,  by  Sidney  Dillon  (1903) *1 :  58 \ 

Green  stallion  —  Colorado  E.,  b.,  3,  by  The  Bondsman  (1910) 2:041 

Green  geldings — Highball,   b.,   7,   by   Dr.    Hooker   (1907),   and  Lewis 

Forrest,  blk.,  6,  by  Gen.  Forrest  (1911) 2  :  06J 

Fastest  Trotting  — In  Races 

\  mile  —  The  Monk,  br.  g.,  11,  by  Chimes  (to  wagon) 1 :  00 

Stallion  —  The  Harvester,  br.,  5,  by  Walnut  Hall  (1910) 2 :  02 \ 

Mare  —  Hamburg  Belle,  br.  m.,  7,  by  Axworthy  (1909) 2  :  01  j 

Gelding  —  Uhlan,  blk.  g.,  5,  by  Bingen  (1909) 2  :  03  J 

Yearling  —  Pansy  McGregor,  b.  f.,  by  Fergus  McGregor  (1893) 2 :  23  j 

Two-year-old  —  Peter  Volo,  br.  c.,  by  Peter  the  Great  (1913) 2 :  04 \ 

Three-year-old  —  Colorado  E.,  b.  c.,  by  The  Bondsman  (1910) 2 :  04f 

Four-year-old  —  Joan,  br.  f.,  by  Directum  Spier  (1910) 2 :  04 

Five-year-old  —  The  Harvester,  br.  h.,  by  Walnut  Hall  (1910) 2 :  02f 

Fastest  Trotting  Heat  Records 

First  heat  —  Hamburg  Belle,  br.  m.,  7,  by  Axworthy  (1909) 2 :  Oil 

Second  heat  —  Hamburg  Belle,  br.  m.,  7,  Axworthy  (1909) 2  :  01 J 

Third  heat  —  The  Harvester,  br.  h.,  5,  by  Walnut  Hall  (1910) 2 :  02 

Fourth  heat  —  Soprano,  ch.  m.,  5,  by  Bellini  (1911) 2  :  05J 

Fourth  heat  (gelding)  —  Demarest,  b.  g.,  10,  by  Ariel  Highwood  (1911) .  .  2 :  06i 

Fifth  heat  —  Helen  Stiles,  b.  m.,  by  Sidney  Dillon  (1912) 2  :  06J 

Fifth  heat  (gelding)  —  Bon  Zolock,  b.  g.,  by  Zolock  (1913) 2  :  o6J 

Sixth  heat  —  Manrico,  b.  c.,  3,  by  Moko  (1912) 2  :  07i 

Seventh  heat  —  Monte  Carlo,  b.  g.,  7,  by  Mendocino  (1903) 2  :  07 i 

Eighth  heat  —  Cresceus,  ch.  c.,  3,  by  Robert  McGregor  (1897) 2 :  Hi 

Ninth  heat  —  Alix,  b.  m.,  6,  by  Patronage  (1893) 2 :  09| 

Tenth  heat  —  Pedlar,  b.  h.,  by  Electioneer  (1895) 2 :  25  J 

Dead  heat  —  Sweet  Marie,  b.  m.,  8,  by  McKinney  and  Aristo,  b.  g.,  5, 

by  Nushagak  (1904) 2  :  08i 

Fastest  Trotting  Races 

Two-heat  race  —  Hamburg  Belle,  br.  m.,  7,  by  Axworthy  (1909)  2 :  01  J,  2 :  01 J 
Two-heat  race  by  stallion  —  The  Harvester,  br.,  5,  by  Walnut  Hall 

(1910) 2  : 041,  2 :  03J 

Two-heat  race  by  a  gelding  —  Uhlan,  blk.  g.,  5,  by  Bingen  (1909)  2 :  04 \,  2 :  03i 
Three-heat  race  by  stallion  —  The  Harvester,  br.  h.,  5,  by  Walnut  Hall 

(1910) 2  :  07i,  2 :  08,  2 :  02 


APPENDIX  327 


Three-heat  race  by  mare  —  Hamburg  Belle,  b.,  by  Axworthy  (1908) 

2:05,  2:  06>      2:04} 

Three-heat  race  by  gelding  —  Paderewski,  ch.  g.,  by  Constenaro  (1909) 

2 :  05},  2 :  06},        2  :  05} 

Three-heat  race  (divided  heats),  by  a  stallion  —  Billy  Burk,  b.,  5,  by 

Silent  Brook  (1911)  (First  heat  won  by  Spanish  Queen) 

2:04},  2:  04},        2:04} 

Same  for  mare  —  Dudie  Archdale,  blk.  m.,  by  Archdale  (1913)   (Anvil 

won  first  heat) 2  :  04},  a  :  04},        2 :  04$ 

Same    for    gelding  —  Country  Jay,   ch.,    14,   by   Jay   Hawker    (1910) 

(Sonoma  Girl  won  first  heat) *2 :  041,  2 :  05},        2  :  05J 

Four-heat  race  by  a  mare  —  Dudie  Archdale,  blk.  m.,  by  Archdale  (1912) 

(Billy  Burk  won  first  heat) 2  :  03},  2  :  06},  2 :  04i,        »:  06} 

Same  by  a  gelding  —  Norman  B.,  blk.,  by  Phallas  (1905)  (Dr.  Strong  won 

first  heat,  Snyder  McGregor  second  heat) 2  :  05},  2  :  05},  2  :  06},        2 :  07J 

Five-heat  race  —  Brace  Girdle,  b.  m.,   11,  by  Tregantle   (1911)    (Billy 

Burk  won  first,  Hailworthy  second)    2  :  03},  2  :  05},  2 :  05},  2  :  081,        2  :  07} 
Six-heat  race  —  Spanish  Queen,  b.  m.,  7,  by  Onward  Silver  (1910)  (Major 

Strong  won  first,  General  H.  second  and  third  heats) 

2 :  07},  2  :  04},  2  :  07},  2 :  07},        2 :  12£ 

Six-heat  race  by  a  stallion  —  Manrico,  blk.,  3,  by  Moko  (Baldy  McGregor 

1st,  Rhythmell  2d,  3d) 2  :  07},  2  :  08,  2 :  081,  2  :  08},  2 :  09},        2  :  071 

Seven-heat  race  —  Monte  Carlo,  b.  g.,  7,  by  Mendocino  (1903)  (Haw- 
thorne won  third  and  fourth  and  Dr.  Strong  fifth  and  sixth  heats) 

2  :  07},  2  :  07},  2 :  06},  2  :  10,  2  :  09i,  2  :  13,        2 :  07} 

Eight-heat  race  —  Nutbearer,  b.  g.,  8,  by  Nutbreaker  (1902)  (Alice  Carr 

won  first,  Rythmic  second,  Wentworth  third  and  Dulce  Cor  fourth 

and  sixth  heats)  2:  09},  2  :  08},  2:  09},  2:  081,2:  10},  2:  12},  2: 10},        2:  12 
Nine-heat  race  —  Alix,  b.  m.,  5,  by  Patronage  (1893)  (Pixley  won  sixth 

and   eighth,    Nightingale   seventh,    Lord   Clinton   fifth   and    Hulda 

second  and  third  heats) 

2:07},  2:  10},  2:  10i,  2:11},  2:  111,  2:09},  2:  12},  2:  15}        2:09} 

Ten-heat  race  —  Pedlar,  b.  h.,  by  Electioneer  (1895)  (Don  C.  won  first 

and  second  heats,  Soudan  third.  Prince  Lavalard  fourth  and  seventh, 

Katie  Mack  fifth  and  sixth  heats) 

2 :  17},  2 :  18},  2 :  16},  2 :  16},  2  :  18},  2 :  18},  2 :  21,  2 :  22},  2  :  23},        2 :  25} 

Trotting  to  Wagon  —  Distance  Records 

1  mile  —  Uhlan,  blk,  g.,  7,  by  Bingen  (1911) :  56} 

1  mile  —  Lou  Dillon,  ch.  m.,  5,  by  Sidney  Dillon  (1903)  (amateur  driver)  2 :  00 

1  mile  by  a  stallion  —  John  A.  McKerron,  b.,  by  Nutwood  Wilkes  (1900)  2 :  10 

1  mile  by  a  gelding  —  Uhlan,  blk.,  7,  by  Bingen  (1911)  (am.) 2 :  00 

1  mile  in  a  race  —  Lou  Dillon,  ch.  m.,  5,  by  Sidney  Dillon  (1903) 2 :  04} 

1  mile  in  a  race,  by  a  gelding  —  Lord  Derby,  b.,  7,  by  Mambrino  King 

(1902) 2 :  05} 

2  miles  -  -  Pelagon,  b.  g.,  12,  by  Milroi  20585  (1909) 4 :  38 

3  miles  —  Ed  Bryan,  b.  g.,  10,  by  Little  Corporal  (1905) 7 :  301 

5  miles  —  Ed  Bryan,  h.  g.,  12,  by  Little  Corporal  (1907) 13 :  03 

10  miles  —  Julia  Aldrich,  ch.  m.,  untraced  (1858) 29 :  041 

20  miles  —  Controller,  h.  g.,  by  Mayboy  (1878) 58 :  57 

Trotting  to  Wagon  —  Fastest  Races 

Fastest  two-heat  race  —  Lou  Dillon,  ch.  m.,  5,  by  Sidney  Dillon  (1903) 

2:04},  2:04} 

Fastest  two-heat  race  by  a  stallion  —  John  A.  McKerron,  b.,  5,  by  Nut- 
wood Wilkes  (1900) 2:  10,  2:  11 


328  APPENDIX 

Fastest  two-heat  race  by  a  gelding  —  Lord  Derby,  b.,  7,  by  Mambrino 

King  (1902) 2:05*.  2:06! 

Fastest  three-heat  race  —  American  Boy,  b.  g.,  by  Potential  (1907) 

2 :  12,  2  :  12,  2 :  12i 

Fastest  three-heat  race  (divided  heats)  —  Lord  Derby,  b.  g.,  7,  by  Mam- 
brino King  (1902)  (The  Monk  won  first  heat) 2  :  06J,  2  :  06,  2 :  06 

Fastest  four-heat  race  —  Invader,  b.,  9,  by  Jay  Bird  (1908)  (Alexander 

won  the  second  heat,  Lady  Jones  the  third)- -.2:  11 J,  2:  101,  2:  11,  2:  13J 

Four-heat  race  by  a  mare  —  Aerolite,  b.,  7,  by  Acolyte  (1904)  (Dartmore 

won  first  heat,  Hugh  Wynne  second) 2 :  14,  2  :  131,  2 :  12,  2  :  12} 

Trotting  under  Saddle 

1  mile  —  Country  Jay,  ch.  g.,  by  Jay  Hawker  (1909) 2 :  08J 

2  miles  —  Geo.  M.  Patchen,  b.  h.,  14,  by  Cassius  M.  Clay  (1863) 4  :  56 

(XOTE.  —  The  above  record  has  been  excelled  in  New  Zealand  by 
Redchild,  4  :  40,  in  1910.) 

3  miles  —  Dutchman,  b.  g.,  11,  by  Tippoo  Saib,  Jr.  (1839) 7 :  321 

4  miles  —  Dutchman,  b.  g.,  8,  by  Tippo  Saib,  Jr.  (1836) 10 :  51 

Trotting  with  Running  Mate 

i  mile,  against  time  —  Uhlan,  blk.  g.,  by  Bingen  (1913) *i :  541 

1  mile,  in  a  race  —  Frank,  b.  g.,  7,  by  Abraham  (1883) 2  :  081 

Trotting  Teams 
1  mile  —  Uhlan,  blk.  g.,  8,  by  Bingen,  and  Lewis  Forrest,  blk.  g.,  by  Gen. 

Forrest  (1912) *2  :  03i 

1  mile,  in  a  race  —  Roseleaf,  blk.  f.,  4,  by  Gold  Leaf,  and  Sallie  Simmons, 

b.  f.,  4,  by  Simmons  (1894) 2 :  15i 

Two-heat  race  —  Maxy  Cobb,  b.   h.,  by  Happy   Medium,   and   Neta 

Medium,  b.  m.,  by  Happy  Medium  (1888) 2  :  211,        2  :  181 

Three-heat  race  —  Arab,  by  Arthurton,  and  Cone,  ch.  g.,  by  Arthurton 

(1887) 2  :  29  J,  2 :  23,        2  :  18  J 

Trotting  Teams  —  Tandem 
1  mile  —  Mambrino  Sparkle,  ch.  m.,  8,  by  Mambrino  Chief,  Jr.,  and 

William  H.,  b.  g.,  11,  by  Young  Wilkes  (1886) 2  :  32 

Trotting  Teams  — Three  Abreast 
1  mile  —  Belle  Hamlin,  br.  m.,  12,  Globe,  br.  m.,  10,  and  Justina,  b.  m., 

12,  all  by  Almont,  Jr.  (1891) 2  :  14 

Trotting  Teams  — Four-in-Hand 
1  mile  —  Damiana,  ch.  m.,  9  ;   Bellnut,  ch.  g.,  8 ;  Maud  V.,  ch.  m.,  9,  and 

Nutspra,  ch.  f.,  4,  all  by  Nutmeg  (1896) 2 :  30 

Pacing 
Pacing  —  Distance  Records 

}  mile  —  Dan  Patch,  br.  h.,  8,  by  Joe  Patchen  (1904) :  56 

1  mile  —  Dan  Patch,  br.  h.,  9,  by  Joe  Patchen  (1905) 1 :  55* 

1  mile  (in  open)  —  Minor  Heir,  br.  h.,  by  Heir  at  Law  (1910) 1 :  581 

1  mile  to  high  wheels  —  Dan  Patch 2  :  04f 

1A  miles  —  Cheery  Lass,  b.  m.,  7,  by  Bobby  McGregor  (1904) 2  :  14} 


APPENDIX  329 

1}  miles  —  Carl  Wilkes,  ch.  g.,  by  Wilkes  Nutwood  (1902) ...  2 :  20 

li  miles  —  Nervolo,  b.  h.,  7,  by  Colbert  (1903) -. .  2 :  38 

H   miles  —  Locanda,  br.  h.,  6,  by  Allerton  (1903) 3 :  15} 

2  miles  —  Dan  Patch,  br.  h.,  7,  by  Joe  Patchen  (1903)  (first  mile  2 :  07J, 

second  mile  2  :  09i) 4  :  17 

3  miles  —  Elastic  Pointer,  br.  h.,  15,  by  Brown  Hal  (1909) 7 :  31 } 

(The  above  record  has  been  excelled  in  New  Zealand  by  Almont, 
6 :  50,  in  1908.) 

4  miles  —  Joe  Jefferson,  b.  h.,  12,  by  Thomas  Jefferson  (1891) 10 :  10 

5  miles  —  Lady  St.  Clair,  b.  m.,  12,  by  St.  Clair  (1874) 12  :  54 1 

(The  above  record  has  been  excelled  in  England  by  Professor,  Ameri- 
can name  Roy  B.,  2  :  09J,  in  1907,  time  12  :  25|.) 

Fastest  Pacers  for  Sex  and  Age 

Stallion  —  Dan  Patch,  br.,  9,  by  Joe  Patchen  (1905) *1 : 55J 

Gelding  —  Prince  Alert,  b.,  11,  by  Crown  Prince  (1903) *1 :  59 

Mare  —  Dariel,  b.,  10,  by  Alcander  (1903) *2 :  00} 

Two-month-old  —  Winwood  (1894) *2 :  58 

Yearling  colt  —  Frank  Perry,  b.,  by  Toddington  (1911) *2 :  15 

Yearling  filly  —  Present  Queen,  b.,  by  Searchlight  (1911) *2  :  21} 

Yearling  gelding  —  Hollo,  gr.,  by  Jerome  Eddy  (1891) *2 :  28} 

Two-year-old  colt  —  Directly,  blk.,  by  Direct  (1894) *2  :  07} 

Two-year-old  filly  —  Fleeta  Dillon,  b.,  by  Sidney  Dillon  (1909) *2  :  08} 

Two-year-old  gelding  —  John  Malcom.  b.  g.,  by  Dan  Logan  (1913) a  :  11} 

Three-year-old  —  William,  b.  c.,  by  Abe  J.  (1913) a :  05 

Three-year-old  filly  —  Miss  De  Forest,  b.,  by  The  De  Forest  (1911) ....  2 :  05} 

Three-year-old  gelding  —  Hemet,  br.,  by  Geo.  W.  McKinney  (1912) ....  2 :  081 

Four-year-old  —  Braden  Direct,  blk.  h.,  by  Baron  Direct  (1912) 2:  02} 

Four-year-old  filly  —  The  Maid,  b.,  by  Hal  Index  (1899) 2 :  05} 

Four-year-old  gelding  —  W.  Wood,  b.,  by  Steinway  (1892) 2 :  07 

Five-year-old  gelding  —  Coney,  blk.,  by  McKinney  (1900) 2 :  02 

Five-year-old  stallion  —  Braden  Direct,  blk.  h.,  by  Baron  Direct  (1913)  a  :  01} 

Five-year-old  mare  —  Leata  J.,  blk.  m.,  by  Royal  McKinney  (1913) ....  2  :  03$ 

Green  —  Minor  Heir,  br.  h..  6,  by  Heir-at-Law  (1908) *1  :  59 

Green  gelding  —  My  Star,  ch.,  8,  by  Wilstar  (1906) 2 :  03 1 

Green  mare  —  Leata  J.,  blk.  m.,  by  Royal  McKinney  (1913) a :  03} 

Fastest  Pacing  — In  Races 

i  mile  by  a  gelding  —  Prince  Alert,  b.  g.,  10,  by  Crown  Prince  (1902) ...  :  57} 

i  mile  by  a  stallion  —  Hal  Chaffin,  br.  h.,  13,  by  Brown  Hal  (1911) ....  1 :  00§ 

Stallion  —  Minor  Heir,  br.,  8,  by  Heir-at-Law  (1910) 1 :  59 

(The  above  record  was  made  in  a  dash.) 

Mare  —  Evelyn  W.,  b.  m.,  by  The  Spy  (1912) 2 :  OOJ 

Geldings —  Prince  Alert,  b.,  9,  by  Crown  Prince  (1910),  and  Bolivar,  b., 

by  Wayland  W.  (1906) 2  :  00} 

Yearling  —  Belle  Acton,  b.  f.,  by  Shadeland  Onward  (1892) 2 :  30 

Two-year-old  mare  —  Extasy,  b.  f.,  by  Baron  Wilkes  (1898) 2 :  10J 

Two-year-old  gelding  —  John  Malcolm,  b.  g.,  by  Dan  Logan  (1913) a  :  n  i 

Three-year-old  filly  —  Miss  De  Forest,  b.,  by  The  De  Forest  (1911) 2  :  05i 

Three-year-old  colt  —  William,  b.  c.,  by  Abe  J.   (1913) a  :  05 

Four-year-old  —  Braden  Direct,  blk.  h.,  by  Baron  Direct  (1912) 2  :  02} 

Five-year-old  stallion  —  Braden  Direct,  blk.  h.,  by  Baron  Direct  (1913)  a :  01} 

Five-year-old  gelding  —  Coney,  blk.,  by  McKinney  (1900) 2  :  02} 

Five-year-old  mare  —  Leata  J.,  blk.,  m.,  by  Royal  McKinney  (1913) a :  03 

Green  mare  —  Leata  J.,  blk.  m.,  by  Royal  McKinney  (1913) a  :  03 


330  APPENDIX 


Fastest  Pacing  Heat  Records 

First  heat  —  Minor  Heir,  br.  h.,  8,  by  Heir-at-Law  (1910) 1  : 59 

(The  above  record  was  made  in  a  dash.     He  also  holds  the  first  heat 
record  in  a  race  of  2 :  00*  made  in  1908.) 

Second  heat  —  Evelyn  W.,  b.  m.,  by  The  Spy  (1912) 2  :  00* 

Second  heat,  gelding  —  Prince  Alert,  b.,  9,  by  Crown  Prince  (1901) 2  :  OOf 

Third  heat  —  Star  Pointer,  b.  h.,  8,  by  Brown  Hal  (1897)   2  :  00* 

Fourth  heat,  stallion  — •  Directum  I,  ch.  h.,  by  Directum  Kelly  (1913)  ...  2  :  02  \ 

Fourth  heat  by  a  mare  —  Evelyn  W.,  b.,  8,  by  The  Spy  (1911) 2 :  02i 

Fourth  heat  by  a  gelding  —  Robert  J.,  b.   g.,  8,  by  Hartford  (1896).  ...  2:  02| 

Fifth  heat  —  Frank  Bogash,  Jr.,  b.  g.,  8,  by  Frank  Bogash  (1913) 2  :  03* 

Fifth  heat  (mare)  —  Aileen  Wilson,  8,  by  Arrowwood  (1908) 2 :  04 

Sixth  heat  —  Babe,  br.  g.,  by  Atlantic  King  (1912) 2  :  04i 

Seventh  heat  —  Walter  Cochato,  4,  blk.  h.,  by  Cochato  (1912) 2 :  06} 

Seventh  heat,  gelding  —  Jerry  B.,  ch.,  8,  by  Argot  Wilkes   (1908) 2  :  07} 

Eighth  heat  —  King  Direct,  blk.  h.,  by  Direct  (1904) 2  :  09* 

Ninth  heat  —  Dombey,  Jr.,  br.  h.,  by  Dombey  (1899) 2 :  22} 

Tenth  heat  —  Kitty  R.,  b.  m.,  by  Kermiss  (1898) 2 :  20 

Eleventh  heat  —  Clipcetta,  blk.  m.,  by  Elk  Nutwood  (1898) 2 :  22 

Twelfth  heat  —  Dandy  O.,  b.  h.,  3,  by  Dall  Brino  (1891) 2  :  291 

Dead  heat  —  Robert  J.,  b.  g.,  8,  by  Hartford,   and  John   R.  Gentry, 

b.  h.,  7,  by  Ashland  Wilkes  (1896) 2 :  04 

Fastest  Pacing  Races 

Two-heat  race  —  Prince  Alert,  b.  g.,  9,  by  Crown  Prince  (1901)  2 :  02},  2  :  00 J 
Two-heat  race  by  stallion  —  Earl  J.,  gr.  h.,  by  The  Earl  (1913)  2  :  02  f,  2  :  02  J 
Two-heat  race  by  a  mare  —  Evelyn  Wr.,  b.  m.,  by  The  Spy  (1912)  2 :  03},  2 :  00* 
Three-heat  race,  divided  heats  —  Gratt,  blk.  h.,  9,  by  Grattan  (1906) 

(Boliver  won  first  heat) 2 :  OOJ,  2  :  02*,        2  :  03* 

Three-heat   race   by   a   stallion  —  Vernon    McKinney,    b.,    6,    by   Guy 

McKinney  (1911) 2  :  03},   2  :  02,        2  :  02i 

Three-heat  race  by  a  mare  —  The  Broncho,  b.,  8,  by  Stormcliffe  (1906) 

2  :  03,  2  :  03  J,        2  :  021 

Lady  Maud  C.,  ch.,  9,  by  Chitwood  (1909) 2  :  03},  2 :  02 J,       2  :  031 

Three-heat  race  by  a  gelding  —  Independence  Boy,  ch.,  6,  by  Thistle 

(1911) 2:02},  2:  01},        2:02 

Four-heat  race  by  a  gelding  —  John  M.,  blk.  g.,  6,  by  Paris  (1904)  (Dan 

R.  won  first  heat,  Gallagher  second  heat) 2  :  02,  2  :  06,  2 :  03  i,        2  :  03  J 

Four-heat  race  by  a  mare  —  Evelyn  W.,  b.,  8,  by  The  Spy  (1911)  (Second 

heat  won  by  Earl,  Jr.) 2  :  03,  2  :  03,  2  :  03*.        2 :  021 

Five-heat  race  —  Evelyn  W.,  b.  m.,  by  The  Spy  (1912)  (Earl,  Jr.,  won 

2d,  3d) 2:01*,  2:  03*,  2:  Oli,  2:  03*,       2:04} 

Five-heat  race,  by  a  stallion  —  Minor  Heir,  br.  h.,  by  Heir-at-Law  (1908) 

(The  Eel  won  the  third  and  fourth  heats)  2  :  01*,  2  :  01,  2 :  05*,  2 :  08,        2  :  07 
Six-heat  race  —  Babe,  br.  g.,  by  Atlantic  King  (1912)  (Ty  Cobb  won  1st, 

2d  ;   Walter  Cochato  4th) ....    2  :  06},  2  :  05},  2  :  04},  2  :  05},  2 :  08,        2  :  04} 
Six-heat  race,  stallion  —  Planet,  b.  h.,  6,  by  Bonnie  McGregor  (1897) 

(Aileen  won  first  heat  and  Frank  Bogash  second  and  third  heats) 

2 :  07},  2  :  05},  2  :  04},  2  :  05},  2  :  07},        2  :  06} 

Seven-heat  race  —  Jerry  B.,  ch.  g.,  by  Argot  Wilkes  (1908)  (Minor  Heir 

won  the  first  and  second,  The  Eel  third,  and  Copa  de  Oro  fourth 

heats) 2  :  00*,  2  :  02,  2  :  05},  2  :  08*,  2  :  06J,  2  :  06},        2  :  07} 

Eight-heat  race  —  Directum,  blk.  h.,  8,  by  Director  (1895)    (Coleridge 

won  first  and  second,  Paul  third,  and  Ben  D.  fourth  and  fifth  heats) 

2:05},  2:06},  2:07},  2:07  J,  2  :  07J,  2  :  08},  2:  10,        2:  11* 


APPENDIX  331 


Nine-heat  race  —  Dombey,  Jr.,  br.  h.,  by  Dombey  (1899)  (Belle  Colley 
won  first  and  sixth,  Marion  G.  second  and  fifth,  Maxine  fourth  and 
seventh  heats)  2:  09},  2:  10,  2: 11},  2:  Hi,  2:  13},  2:  15,2:  12},  2:15,  2  :  22\ 

Ten-heat  race  —  Kitty  R.,  b.  f.,  4,  by  Kermiss  (189.8)  (Miss  Maymo  won 
first,  The  Bishop  second  and  third,  Tom  Webster  fourth,  Harry  C. 

seventh  and  ninth,  Ding  eighth  heat) 

2  :  11},  2  :  12,  2  :  131,  2 :  11},  2  :  10},  2  :  13},  2  :  14},  2  :  16},  2  :  17},  2 :  20 

Eleven-heat  race  —  Clipcetta,  blk.  m.,  by  Elk  Nutwood  (1898)  (Kentucky 
Joe  won  first  and  fifth,  Bonnie  second,  Donatus  third  and  eighth, 

Easter  Belle  fourth,  David  R.  sixth  and  seventh  heats) 2 :  13}, 

2 :  13},  2  :  14},  2  :  16},  2  :  13},  2 :  15},  2  :  15},  2 :  19},  2 :  19},  2  :  251,  2  :  22 

Twelve-heat  race  —  Dandy  O.,  b.  h.,  3,  by  Dall  Brino  (1891)  (to  high 
wheels)  (Birchwood  won  first  and  second,  Jessie  L.  third  and  fourth, 
Maud  M.  fifth  and  sixth,  Rahletta  seventh,  lalene  eighth,  Fred  K. 

ninth) 2 :  19}, 

2 : 181,  2  : 17},  2  : 19},  2  :  22,  2  :  25},  2  :  25,  2  :  26},  2  :  30},  2  :  29},  2 :  31,  2  :  29i 

Pacing  to  Wagon 

1  mile  —  Morning  Star,  b.  g.,  by  Star  Pointer  (1906) 0 :  59} 

1  mile  —  Dan  Patch,  br.  h.,  7,  by  Joe  Patchen  (1903) 1 :  57} 

1  mile  by  a  mare  —  Aileen  Wilson,  blk.,   10,  by  Arrowwood  (1910) 2  :  04} 

1  mile  by  a  gelding  —  Little  Boy,  b.,  8,  by  Kenton   (1901) 2:01} 

1  mile  in  a  race  by  a  stallion  —  Hontas  Crooke,  ch.,  by  Budd  Crooke 

(1901),  and  Fred  S.  Wedgewood,  ro.,  by  Fred  S.  Wilkes  (1902) ....  2:  07} 

1  mile  in  a  race  by  a  mare  —  Edith  W.,  b.,  9,  by  Ben  Lomond,  Jr.   (1902)  2 :  05} 
1  mile  in  a  race  by  a  gelding  —  Angus  Pointer,  b.,  by  Sidney  Pointer 

(1904) 2 :  04} 

3  miles  —  Longfellow,  ch.  g.,  by  Red  Bill  (1868) 7 :  53 

5  miles  —  Lady  St.  Clair,  b.  m.,  12,  by  St.  Clair  (1874) 12 :  51 1 

Two-heat  race  —  Coney,  blk.  g.,  by  McKinney  (1900) 2  :  05},  2 :  05} 

Two-heat  race  by  stallion  —  Prince  Direct,  blk.,  by  Direct 2 :  07},  2 :  09} 

Two-heat  race  by  a  mare  —  Edith  W.,  b.,  9,  by  Ben  Lomond,  Jr.     2:05},  2:05} 
Three-heat  race  —  Angus  Pointer,  b.  g.,  by  Sidney  Pointer  (1904)  (Baron 

Grattan  won  first  heat) 2 :  06},  2 :  04},  2  :  06} 

Pacing  under  Saddle 

1  mile  —  Kruger,  ch.  g.,  by  Mercury  (1907)  (amateur  rider) 2 :  12 

1  mile  in  a  race  —  Billy  Boyce,  b.  g.,  by  Corbeau  (1868) 2 :  14} 

2  miles  —  Bowery  Boy,  br.  g.,  pedigree  untraced  (1839) 5 :  04} 

3  miles  —  Oneida  Chief,  ch.  g.,  by  Kentucky  Hunter  (1843) 7 :  44 

Pacing  with  Running  Mate 
1  mile  —  Flying  Jib,  b.  g.,  8,  by  Algona  (1894) 1 :  58 

Pacing  Teams 

}  mile  —  Prince  Direct,  blk.  h.,  9,  by  Direct,  and  Morning  Star,  b.  g.,  7, 

by  Star  Pointer  (1904) 1 :  00} 

1  mile  —  Minor  Heir,  br.  h.,  10,  by  Heir  at  Law,  and  George  Gano,  by 

Gambetta  Wilkea  (1912) *2:  02 

1  mile  in  a  race  —  Charley  B.,  blk.  g.,  and  Bobby  Hal,  b.  g.,  8,  by  Octoroon 

(1909) 2 :  13 

1  mile  (amateur  driver)  —  Prince  Direct,  blk.  h.,  9,  by  Direct,  and  Morn- 
ing Star,  b.  g.,  7,  by  Star  Pointer  (1904) 2  :  06 


332  APPENDIX 

Fastest  Half-Mile  Track  Records 
Trotting 

Gelding  —  Uhlan,  blk.  g.,  7,  by  Eingen  (1911) 2 :  02  J 

Stallion  —  Willy,  br.  h.,  7,  by  Wilburn  M.  (1911) 2  :  071 

Mare  —  Sweet  Marie,  b.,  11,  by  McKinney  (1907) 2 :  07 

Yearling  filly  —  Edna  the  Great,  b.  f.,  by  Caduceus  the  Great  (1912) ...  *2 :  29} 

Yearling  colt  —  U.  Forbes,  blk.  c.,  by  J.  Malcolm  Forbes  (191?) *2 : 21} 

Two-year-old  —  Nowaday  Girl,  b.  f.,  by  MacDougall,  2  :  10}  (1912) ....  2  :  16i 

Two-year-old  colt  —  Royal  Hall,  b.  c.,  by  Royal  Reaper  (1913) 2 :  19} 

Three-year-old  colt  —  Al.  Stanley,  ro.  c.,  by  Todd  (1909) 2 :  13} 

Three-year-old  filly  —  'Muda  Guy,  b.  f.,  by  Guy  Axworthy  (1909) 2 :  12} 

Four-year-old  —  Pat  L.,  b.  c.,  by  Republican  (1896) 2  :  10i 

Mare  in  race  —  Sweet  Marie,  b.  m.,  11,  by  McKinney  (1907) 2 :  08 

First  heat  —  Joe  Bowers,  b.  h.,  7,  by  Symboleer  (1911) 2 :  09} 

First  heat  by  a  mare  —  Sweet  Marie,  b.  m.,  11,  by  McKinney  (1907) ...  2 :  10 

Second  heat  —  Sweet  Marie,  b.  m.,  11,  by  McKinney  (1907) 2 :  08 

Third  heat  —  Early  Alice,  br.  m.,  7,  by  Early  Reaper  (1908) 2  :  08  J 

Fourth  heat  —  Charley  H.,  br.  g.,  8,  by  Cicerone  (1910) 2  :  09i 

Fourth  heat  by  a  stallion  —  Kenyon  W.,  blk.,  9,  by  Marcos  Bozarris 

(1911) 2  :  10| 

Two-heat  race  —  George  G.,  b.  g.,  8,  by  Homeward  (1906) 2  :  08 J,  2  :  08} 

Three-heat  race  —  Locust  Jack,  g.  g  ,  7,  by  Kellar  Thomas  (1908) 

2 :  10},  2  :  10},  2  :  09 

Four-heat  race  —  Norman  B.,  blk.  g.,  by  Phallas  (1904)  (Tonso  won  first 

heat) 2 :  Hi,   2  :  12  J,  2  :  13,  2 :  14} 

Eleanor  B.,  b.  m.,  by  Allerio  (1906)  (Leavette  won  third  heat) 

2:  14},  2:  13},  2:  13},  2:  13} 

Five-heat  race  —  Kenyon  W.,  blk.  h.,  9,  by  Marcos  Bozzaris  (1911)  (Joe 

Bowers  won  first  two  heats) 2:09},  2:  11},  2:09J,  2:  lOf,  2:  14 

Five-heat  race  by  a  mare —  Marigold,  b.,  8,  by  Delham  (1911)  (Baron 

Reaper,  1st,  2d) 2:  10},  2:  12,  2:  12},  2:  12},  2:  12} 

Five-heat  race  by  a  gelding  —  Charley  H.,  br.  g.,  8,  by  Cicerone  (1910) 

(Early  Alice  won  2d  and  3d  heats) 2:  11},  2:  11},  2  :  10  J,  2  :  09},  2:  15} 

1  mile  to  wagon  —  Sweet  Marie,  b.  m.,  11,  by  McKinney  (1907) 2 :  08} 

1  mile,  by  a  team  —  York  Boy,  b.  g.,  by  Wilkes  Boy,  and    Bemay,    blk. 

m.,  by  Baronaise  (1902) 2  :  12} 

Saddle  —  Country  Jay,  ch.  g.,  15,  by  Jayhawker  (1911) 2 :  17} 

Two  miles  —  Prince  C.,  br.  h.,  10,  by  Martyr  (1911) 4  :  42 

Pacing 

Stallion  —  Dan  Patch,  br.  h.,  9,  by  Joe  Patchen  (1905) *2 :  01 

Mare  —  Alcyfras,  ro.,  8,  by  Alcryon  (1911) *2  :  04} 

Gelding  —  Prince  Alert,  b.,  11,  by  Crown  Prince  (1903) *2  :  03} 

Stallion  (race)  —  Directum  I.,  ch.  h.,  by  Directum  Kelly  (1913) 2  :  02} 

Mare  in  race  —  Lady  Maud  C.,  ch.,  10,  by  Chitwood  (1911) 2  :  Oil 

Gelding  (race)  —  Prince  Alert,  b.  g.,  9,  by  Crown  Prince  (1901) 2 :  04} 

Two-year-old  (against  time)  —  Online *2 :  17 

Two-year-old  —  Argot  Patch  (1911) 2:  17} 

Two-year-old  filly  —  Tillie  Tipton,  b.,  by  Ozono  (1912) 2  :  18} 

Three-year-old  filly  —  Grace  D.  (1911) 2  :  10} 

Three-year-old  colt  —  William,  b.  c.,  by  Abe  J a :  09 

Four-year-old  stallion  —  Director  Jay.,  ro.  h.,  by  The  Director  General 

(1913) 2  :  08} 


APPENDIX 


Two-heat  race—  Lady  Maud  C.  (1911) 2  :  04},        2:  04} 

Two-heat  race,  by  a  gelding  —  Prince  Alert,  b.  g.,  10,  by  Crown  Prince 

(1902) 2 :  05,        2 :  05i 

Three-heat  race  —  Prince  Alert,  b.  g.,  7,  by  Crown  Prince  (1899) 

2 :  07,  2  :  06  J,        2  :  06} 

Three-heat  race,  by  a  stallion  —  Bedworth,  Jr.,  b.,  by  Bedworth  (1903) 

2  :  OS},  2 :  09  J,        2  :  08 J 

Three-heat  race,  by  a  mare  —  The  Broncho,  b.,  by  Stormcliffe  (1905) . . 

2  :  06i,  2  :  07i,        2  :  07  i 

Four-heat  race  —  Prince  Alert,  b.  g.,  7,  by  Crown  Prince  (1899)  (Democ- 
racy won  second  heat) 2  :  10,  2  :  07f,  2  :  07,        2  :  06J 

Five-heat  race  —  Prince  Alert,  b.  g.,  7,  by  Crown  Prince  (1899)  (Roan 

Wilkes  won  first  and  second  heats)      2 :  09,  2 :  08i,  2  :  10J,  2 :  07},        2 :  08 
Six-heat  race  —  Hal  B.,  Jr.,  br.  h.,  by  Hal  B.  (1912) 

2:07},  2:07},  2:07},  2:08,  2:  11,        2:09} 

Six-heat  race  (gelding)  —  Harry  L.,  b.  g.,  by  Coleridge  (1906)  (Index  won 

first  heat,  The  Bishop  third  and  fourth) 

2 :  08},  2 :  07},  2 :  09},  2  :  12},  2  :  08},        2 :  08} 

Mile  in  race,  by  team  —  Charley  B.,  blk.  g.,  by  Octoroon,  and  Bobby  Hal, 

b.  g.,  by  Octoroon  (1900) 2  :  13 

To  Wagon  — Half-Mile  Track 

1  mile  —  Dan  Patch,  br.  h.,  by  Joe  Patchen  (1905) 2 :  05 

1  mile  in  a  race  —  Joe  Patchen,  blk.  h.,  by  Patchen  Wilkes  (1906) 2:11 

1  mile,  mare  —  Nerva  Patchen,  ch.,  by  Bourbon  Patchen  (1901) 2 :  13 1 


WORLD'S  RUNNING  RECORDS 

}  mile  —  Bob  Wade,  Butte,  Mont.,  Aug.  20,  1890 :  21} 

|  mile  —  Atoka,  Butte,  Mont.,  Aug.  23,  1906 *. :  33} 

Pinkerton,  Belmont  Park,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  15,  1906  (made  in  first  f  of  6 

furlongs) :  32| 

J  mile  —  Donan,  Santa  Anita,  Cal.,  Mar.  13,  1909 =46} 

Amon  (2),  Juarez,  Mex.,  Feb.  9,  1911 ;  Geraldine  (straight  course), 

Morris  Park,  Aug.  30,  1889 :  46 

3}  furlongs  —  Calisse  (2),  Juarez,  Mex.,  Jan.  27,  1911 :  39f 

4}  furlongs  —  Perceptor,  2  years,  Belmont  Park,  New  York,  May  19, 

1908 :  51 

5  furlongs  —  Great  Surprise,  Epsom,  England,  April  23,  1912  (straight 

track) :  55| 

2-year-old  Eastern  Rose.  Epsom,  England,  April  23,  1912 :  56J 

5J  furlongs  —  Queen  Marguerite,  Belmont  Park,  N.  Y.,  May  19,  1908.  :  04 

Straightaway,  Plater,  New  York,  Oct.  21.  1902 :  02  J 

6  furlongs,  straightaway  —  Artful,  New  York,  Oct.  15,  1904 :  08 

Master  Willie,  Epsom,  England,  June  6,  1901  .  . :  07i 

Canonite,  Epsom,  England,  April  23,  1912  (circular  track) :  07f 

Iron  Mask  (127  lb.),  Louisville,  Ky.,  Sept.  23,  1913 :  07| 

6  J  furlongs  —  Lady  Vera,  Belmont  Park,  New  York,  Oct.  19,  1906 :  16| 

7  furlongs  —  Rosenben,  126  lb.  up,  Belmont  Park  (circular  track),  New 

York,  Oct.  16,  1906 :  22 

Sunspot,  120  lb.  up,  Epsom,  England,  May  30,  1911 :  20J 

7  J  furlongs  —  Restigouche,  Belmont  track.  New  York,  May  22,  1908 ...  :  31} 

|  miles  —  Tern's  Trick,  Oakland,  Cal.,  Dec.  29,  1910 :  58 


334  APPENDIX 

1  mile  —  Center  Shot  (circular  course),  Los  Angeles,  Dec.  22,  1908 1 : 37  J 

Dick  Welles,  3-year-old,  Chicago,  1903 1 :  37 1 

Kiamesha,  Belmont  track,  New  York,  Oct.  9, 1905 ;  Fern  L.,  Seattle, 

Wash.,  Aug.  15,  1908;   Bourbon  Beau,  Juarez,  Mex.,  Feb.  14,  1912 

1   mile  —  Salvator   (straight  course,   against  time),   Monmouth   Park, 

Aug.  28,  1890 1 :  35J 

Caiman  (American  bred),  Lingfield  Park,  straight  course,  Surrey, 

England,  July  13,  1900 1 :  33* 

Circular  course,  Kildeer,  New  York,  Aug.  13,  1902 1 : 37i 

1  mile  20  yards  —  Froglegs,  Louisville,  Ky.,  May  13,  1913 1  :  39f 

1  mile  44  yards  —  Prevoyant  (110  lb.),  Epsom,  Eng.,  June  6,  1913 1  :  35| 

1  mile  50  yards  —  Grand  Opera,  4-year-old,  Chicago,  1903 1 :  41i 

1  mile  70  yards  —  Princess  Callaway  (3),  Latonia,  Ky.,  Oct.  27,  1911 ...  1 :  42 
Levetie,  Fort  Erie,  Can.,  July  4,  1912 

1  mile  100  yards  —  Rapid  Water,  Oakland,  Cal.,  Nov.  30,  1907 1  :  44£ 

1&  miles  —  Gretna  Green,  Fort  Erie,  Ont.,  Aug.  28,  1909 1 :  43i 

1 A  miles  —  Milton  B.,  Latonia,  Cincinnati,  O..  July  4,  1913 1  :  56| 

1J  miles  —  Vox  Populi,  110  lb.  up,  Los  Angeles,  Dec.  19,  1908 1 :  50 

Charles  Edward,  126  lb.,  New  York,  July  16,  1907 1 :  oOf 

li  miles  —  Whisk  Broom  II  (139  lb.),  Belmont  Park,  New  York,  June 

28,  1913 2  :  00 

1A  miles  —  Ballot,  Sheepshead,  N.  Y.,  July  1,  1908 2 :  09f 

If  miles  —  Long  Set  (130  lb.),  Liverpool,  England,  July  25,  1913 2 :  16| 

li  miles  —  Marajax,  4  years,  109  lb.  up,  Manchester,  Eng.,  June  9,  1911  2  :  27| 

if  miles  —  War  Mint  (3),  Hurst  Park,  London,  Eng.,  Sept.  26,  1912  .  .  2 :  42f 

If  miles  —  Major  Daingerfield,  4-year-old,  New  York,  1903 2  :  57 

2  miles  —  Everett,  Pimlico  track,  Baltimore,  Md.,  Oct.  31,  1910 3  :  25f 

Pradella,  Ascot,  England,  June  19,  1906 3  :  19| 

2  miles  1  furlong  —  Balscadden  (5),  Newbury,  Eng.,  Sept.  27,  1912 ....  3  :  37i 

2J  miles  —  Ethelbert,  Brighton  Beach,  Aug.  4,  1900 3 :  49J 

2J  miles  —  Prince  Palatine  (130  lb.),  Ascot,  England,  June  20,  1913  ....  4 :  22f 

3  miles  —  Carrie  Roy,  Ascot,  Eng.,  June  13,  1884 5 :  09 

4  miles,  against  time  —  Lucretia  Borgia,  Oakland,  Cal.,  May  20,  1897 .  . .'  7:11 

(In  a  race),  Soternia,  Louisville,  Ky.,  Oct.  7,  1912 7  :  10i 

10  miles  —  Mr.  Brown,  Rancocas,  N.  J.,  March  2,  1880 26 :  18 


Records  for  1913 

6  furlongs,  circular  track  —  Iron  Mask  (127  lb.) ,  Louisville,  Ky.,  Sept.  23  1 :  07| 

1  mile  20  yards  —  Froglegs,  Louisville,  Ky.,  May  13 1 :  39 

lA  miles  —  Milton  B.,  Latonia,  Cincinnati,  O.,  July  4 1 :  56f 

11  miles  —  Whisk  Broom  II  (139  lb.),  Belmont  Park,  N.  Y.,  June  28.  ..  2:  00 

If  miles  —  Long  Set  (130  lb.),  Liverpool,  Eng.,  July  25 2  :  16| 

2  miles  1  furlong  —  Baldscaddeb  (126) ,  Newberry,  Eng.,  Sept.  29 3  :  35| 

2i  miles  —  Prince  Palatine  (130),  June  20 4  :  22f 


Running  Races  —  Hurdle 

1  mile,  4  hurdles  —  Bob  Thomas,  Aug.  13,  1890 1 :  49 

2  miles  —  Charawind,  Oct.  6,  1903,  Morris  Park,  N.  Y 3  :  41| 

3  miles  —  Alert  Dream,  Melbourne,  Australia,  March  3,  1909 5 :  47f 

2  miles  (steeplechase)  —  Findowrie,  Caufield,  Australia,  Dec.  27,  1909 .  .  3  :  52 i 

3  miles  (steeplechase)  —  Fincastle,  Toronto,  Can.,  Sept.  30,  1911 5 :  55| 

4  miles  (steeplechase)  —  Nigel,  Caufield,  Vic.,  Aug.  8,  1908 7  :  59i 


APPENDIX  335 

DAIRY  RECORDS 

HIGHEST  YIELDS  OF  JERSEYS 

BEST  FIVE  RECORDS  IN  YEAR'S  TESTS  AT  VARIOUS  AGES,  JUNE  1,  1914 

Class  1  —  Cows  Under  Two  Years 

Name  and  H.  R.  Number  of  Cow                 Milk               Butter  Fat  85  %  Butter 

LB.          Oz.        LB.         Oz.  LB.     Oz. 

Lucky  Farce  298177       .....    14260       ...          635       11.8  747       14 

Lass  64th  of  Hood  Farm  266735       .       9830         5.           606       10.1  713       10 

King's  Golden  Diploma  252638   .     .       9749         6.4         559         0.13  657       10 

Ruby's  Bonnie  Lass  264498     .     .     .       8823         1.           539         2.  634         4 

Golden  Dollykin  2d  258076     .     .     .     10644       14.4         537       12.5  632       11 

Class  2  —  Cows  Two  Years  and  Under  Two  and  One  Half  Years 

Name  and  H.  R.  Number  of  Cow                 Milk               Butter  Fat  85  %  Butter 


Pearly  Exile  of  St.  Lambert  205101 
Lass  66th  of  Hood  Farm  271896 
Corinne  of  Roycroft  247303     .     .     . 
Lass  54th  of  Hood  Farm  257375  .     . 
Tonona  Pogis'  Fontaine  280417  .      . 

Class  3  —  Cows  Two  and  One 
Name  and  H.  R.  Number  of  Cow 

Mary  Golden  Letta  240917      .     .     . 
Great  Edison's  Polly  243658    .     .     . 
Lass  38th  of  Hood  Farm  223628  .     . 
Lass  51st  of  Hood  Farm  247084  .     . 
Pedro's  Foxy  Mabel  241911     .     .     . 

LB.         Oz.         LB.        Oz.              LB.    Oz. 
12345         8.          816         1.27           960         1 
14513         2.          720         8.               847       10 
11115       11.          640       15.3             754         1 
14160         5.           628         1.5              738       15 
10755        ...          609       12.8              717         6 

Half  Years  and  Under  Three  Years 
Milk               Butter  Fat        85  '  ,  Butter 
LB.         Oz.          LB.        Oz.             LB.     Oz. 
9295         5.          557         7.8             655       14 
8995         6.4         548         3.6              644       15 
9334         3.          544       14.8             641         1 
8968       10.          539         5.1             634         8 
8209         3.2        530        4.2             623       13 

Class  4  —  Cows  Three  Years  and  Under  Three  and  One  Half  Years 

Name  and  H.  R.  Number  of  Cow                 Milk  Butter  Fat  85  To  Butter 

LB.        Oz.  LB.        Oz.  LB.     Oz. 

Tonona  Pogis'  Azalia  261480        .     .     13339       11.2  702         3.1  826         1 

Lass  63d  of  Hood  Farm  266734  .     .     12694       15.  690         6.9  812         2 

Landseer's  Pacific  Pearl  205097   .     .       9045       15.  659         6.6  775       12 

Gertie  of  Glynllyn  2d  206903       .     .    13198         1.6  632         9.7  744         4 

Edith  Marigold  247304        ....     10292         6.2  625       11.7  736         2 

Class  5  —  Cows  Three  and  One  Half  Years  and  Under  Four  Years 

Name  and  H.  R.  Number  of  Cow                 Milk  Butter  Fat  85  '  ,  Butter 

LB.        Oz.  LB.        Oz.  LB.     Oz. 

Lass  40th  of  Hood  Farm  223642       .     15362         1.  747         5.2  879         3 

Lass  47th  of  Hood  Farm  240327       .     11410         9.  685       12.6  806  -     13 

Lass  30th  of  Hood  Farm  214511       .     11990         5.  684        13.9  805       12 

Lass  42d  of  Hood  Farm  223636  .     .     10391         8.  636       10.1  748       15 

Great  Edison's  Polly  243658  .     .     .      9696       11.2  624         1.7  738         3 


336 


APPENDIX 


Class  6  —  Cows  Four  Years  and  Under  Four  and  One  Half  Years 


Name  and  H.  R.  Number  of  Cow 


Spermfield  Owl's  Temisia  215982 
Spermfield  Owl's  Dawson  193935 
Lass  45th  of  Hood  Farm  233488  . 
Nero's  Rosa  of  Caro  205589  .  . 
Goldmont's  Kathletta  225977.  . 


Milk 


Butter  Fat         85  %  Butter 


LB. 

9994 
11858 
11840 
11015 
12065 


LB. 
640 
629 
615 
613 
607 


Oz. 
14.4 
2.3 
5.6 


LB.      Oz. 
754     . 


740 
723 
721 
714 


Class  7  —  Cows  Four  and  One  Half  Years  and  Under  Five  Years 


Name  and  H.  R.  Number  of  Cow                 Milk  Butter  Fat  85  %  Butter 

LB.          Oz.  LB.       Oz.  LB. 

Olympia's  Fern  252060        ....     16147       13.6  937       13.3  1103 

Sophie  19th  of  Hood  Farm  189748  .     14373         3.  854        13.7  1005 

Rosaire's  Olga  4th's  Pride  179509     .     14104       13.6  836       15.8  984 

Lass  30th  of  Hood  Farm  214511 .     .     11413       13.  664       ...  781 

Pogis  Oneida  209479 11438        ,4.8  631        11.8  743 

Class  8  —  Cows  Five  Years  and  Over 


Name  and  H.  R.  Number  of  Cow 


Sophie  19th  of  Hood  Farm  189748 
Spermfield  Owl's  Eva  193934       .     . 

Eminent's  Bess  209719 

Jacoba  Irene  146443       .     .     .     .     . 
Sophie  19th  of  Hood  Farm  189748  . 


Milk 


LB. 
17557 
16457 
18782 
17253 


12. 

6.4 
15.6 

3.2 


Oz. 
5 
11 
11 


Butter  Fat         85  %  Butter 

LB. 

999 

993 

962 

952 

931 


Oz.  LB.  Oz. 

2.2  1175  7 

4.06  1168  8 

13.2  1132  12 

15.4  1121  2 

15.5  1096  7 


HIGHEST  YIELDS  OP  GUERNSEYS 

Highest  record  in  milk  for  Guernseys : 

1  yr.       May  Rilma  22761 
30  days    Murne  Cowan  19597 
7  days    Murne  Cowan  19597 
24  hours  Murne  Cowan  19597 

Highest  records  in  butter  fat  for  Guernseys : 

1  yr.       May  Rilma  22761 
30  days    May  Rilma  22761 
7  ,        }  May  Rilma  22761 
/  days  j  Murne  Cowan  19597 

24  hours  Golden  Elsie  2d  33422 


19673.00  Ih. 

2361.50  Ib. 

564.80  Ib. 

82.10  Ib. 


1073.41  Ib. 

103.03  Ib. 

24.40  Ib. 

24.40  Ib. 

3.70  Ib. 


May  Rilma  22761,  Reentry,  1726 

Sire  Mars  of  Woodcrest  (9290)  A.  R. 
Sire  Mr.  Dooley  of  Mapleton  (6834) 
Dam  Charity  of  Mapleton  (13769) 


APPENDIX 


337 


fat. 


Dam  Rilma  of  Paxtang  (10331) 

Sire  Sheet  Anchor  2d  (4119)  A.  R. 

Dam  Princess  Bonnie  of  Paxtang  (8777. 
Breeder  —  A.  J.  Cassatt,  Berwyn,  Penn. 
Owner  —  E.  B.  Cassatt,  Berwyn,  Penn. 
Born  —  Dec.  15,  1906.     Calved  —  April  4,  1913. 
Requirement  for  admission  :  360.00  Ib.  butter  fat. 
Official  year's  record :    19673.00  Ib.  milk ;    1073.41  Ib.  butter 


Supervised  by  Pennsylvania  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


May,  1913 
June,  1913 
July,  1913 
Aug.,  1913 
Sept.,  1913 
Oct.,  1913 
Nov.,  1913 
Dec.,  1913 
Jan.,  1914 
Feb.,  1914 
Mar.,  1913 
April,  1914 
Total 


1761.20  Ib. 
1839.90  Ib. 
1690.60  Ib. 
1773.80  Ib. 
1687.50  Ib. 
1702.60  Ib. 
1656.20  Ib. 
1563.00  Ib. 
1570.80  Ib. 
1431.20  Ib. 
1538.80  Ib. 
1457.40  Ib. 

4.49% 
5.60% 
5.04% 
5.48% 
5.59% 
5.28% 
5.29% 
5.57% 
5.72% 
5.97% 
6.04% 
5.61% 

19673.00  Ib. 

5.46  Av.% 

BUTTER  FAT 

79.08  Ib. 

103.03  Ib. 

97.20  Ib. 

85.21  Ib. 
94.33  Ib. 
89.90  Ib. 
87.61  Ib. 
87.06  Ib. 
89.85  Ib. 
85.44  Ib. 
92.94  Ib. 
81.76  Ib. 

1073.41  Ib. 


Entry  of  Additional  Record.  Previous  year's  record : 
12125.60  Ib.  milk;  589.07  Ib.  butter  fat.  Published  in  Vol. 
XXVI. 

Feed  Record 

MAY,  1913.  10  Ib.  grain  daily  of  the  following  mixture :  250 
Ib.  bran,  50  Ib.  each  hominy,  cottonseed  meal  and  oil 
meal,  100  Ib.  gluten ;  3  Ib.  beet  pulp,  2  Ib.  molasses,  hay, 
with  pasture. 

JUNE,  1913.  18  Ib.  grain  daily  of  the  following  mixture  :  250  Ib. 
bran,  50  Ib.  each  hominy,  ground  oats,  cottonseed  meal 
and  oil  meal ;  3  Ib.  beet  pulp,  2  Ib.  molasses,  green  feed. 

JULY,  1913.  18  Ib.  grain  daily  of  the  following  mixture  on  1st, 
and  from  llth  to  31st,  15  Ib.  daily  from  2d  to  llth  :  250  Ib. 
bran,  50  Ib.  each  hominy,  cottonseed  meal,  ground  oats  and 
oil  meal,  100  Ib.  gluten ;  3  Ib.  each  molasses  and  beet  pulp, 
corn  fodder  from  1st  to  15th,  clover  from  17th  to  31st. 


338 


APPENDIX 


AUG.,  1913.     18  Ib.  grain  daily  of  the  following  mixture  :  250  Ib. 

bran,  50  Ib.  each  hominy,  cottonseed  meal  and  oil  meal, 

100  Ib.  gluten;    3  Ib.  each  beet  pulp  and  molasses,  corn 

fodder,  alfalfa,  clover  with  pasture. 
SEPT.,  1913.     Same  grain  ration  as  given  in  August  from  1st  to 

3d  and  9th  to  30th ;  from  3d  to  9th  12  Ib.  daily  of  same  mix- 
ture ;    3  Ib.  each  pulp  and  molasses,  corn  fodder  and  clover 

pasture. 
OCT.,  1913.     Same  grain  ration  as  given  in  August ;    3  Ib.  each 

beet  pulp  and  molasses,  green  clover  and  pasture. 
Nov.,  1913.     Same  grain  ration  as  given  in  August ;   3  Ib.  each 

beet  pulp  and  molasses,  25  Ib.  ensilage  with  pasture. 
DEC.,  1913.     Same  grain  ration  as  given  in  August ;   3  Ib.  each 

beet  pulp  and  molasses,  ensilage,  alfalfa  from  8th  to  31st, 

clover  hay. 
JAN.,  1914.     Same  grain  ration  as  given  in  August ;   3  Ib.  each 

beet  pulp  and  molasses,  16  Ib.  carrots,  ensilage,  alfalfa,  clover, 

hay. 
FEB.,  1914.     Same  grain  ration  as  given  in  August ;   6  Ib.  each 

beet  pulp  and  molasses,  carrots,  ensilage  and  clover  hay. 
MAR.,  1914.     Same  ration  as  given  in  February. 
APRIL,  1914.     Same  ration  as  given  in  February;    no  ensilage 

12th. 

Five  Leading  Cows  in  the  Several  Classes  in  the  A.  R.  as  they  Appeared 
June  15,  1914 


May  Rilma  22761,  A.  R.  1726,  Reentry 
Spotswood  Daisy  Pearl  17696,  A.  R.  790, 

Reentry 

Miranda  of  Mapleton  19606,  A.  R.  914, 

Reentry 

Imp.  Beauty  of  Park  Farm  28420,  A.  R. 

1850 

Dolly  Dimple  19144,  A.  R.  628,  Reentry 


Class  A  —  5  years  and  over 

AaE  M^B 

6y.         4m.   19673.00     1073.41 


LB. 
B.F. 


18602.80       957.38 
16630.70       927.16 


18808.50      876.34 


Class  B  —  4i  to  5  years 


Dairymaid  of  Pinehurst  24656,  A.  R.  843, 

Reentry 

Lady  Lesbia  25142,  A.  R.  1348,  Reentry 
Glenanaar  of  the  Glen  23619,  A.  R.  1907 
Imp.  Dinah  II  of  the  Fountain  28482, 

A.  R.  1796,  Reentry 

Imp.  Itchen  Daisy  3d  15630,  A.  R.  100, 
Reentry 


17285.30 
13582.75 
16813.10 


910.67 
787.03 


11   14877.00   726.77 


13636.80   714.10 


5.46 
5.15 
5.57 

6.12 
4.66 


5.27 
5.79 
4.64 

4.89 
5.24 


APPENDIX 


339 


Class  C  —  4  to  4!  years 
AGE 

LB. 
MII.K 

LB. 
B.  F. 

A. 

Azucena'3  Pride  2d  24957,  A.   R.  1469, 

Reentry      4y. 

1m 

.    16203.90 

855.70 

5.28 

Imp.  Beauty  II  of  the  Coutanchez  28465, 

A.  R.  2081  4 

5 

13513.90 

748.81 

5.54 

Anton's    Frances    27291,    A.    R.    1497, 

Reentry      4 

6 

12555.60 

696.05 

5.54 

Honor  Bright  F  17524,  A.  R.  875       .     .      4 

0 

12674.00 

694.64 

5.48 

Golden  Elsie  23744,  A.  R.  1968     ...      4 

6 

15082.35 

692.87 

4.59 

Class  D  —  3$  to  4  years 

Dollv  Dimple  19144,  A.  R.  628,  Reentry      3 

9 

18458.80 

906.89 

4.91 

Langwater  Dorothy  27944,  A.  R.  1822, 
Reentry                                                             3 

9 

16099.70 

781.65 

4.86 

Imp.  Princess  of  the  Blicqs  28485,  A.  R. 

1908       3 

8 

12608.80 

774.16 

6.14 

Rose  of  Langwater  24204,  A.  R.   1445, 

Reentry                                                          3 

11 

15008.20 

751.62 

5.01 

Imp.  Ma  Charmante  6th  31925,  A.  R. 

1995       3 

8 

15149.80 

740.20 

4.89 

Class  E  —  3  to  si  years 

Jehanna  Chene  30889,  A.  R.  2588      .     .      3 

5 

16186.70 

863.36 

5.33 

Dairymaid   of    Pinehurst    24656,  A.  R. 

843,  Reentry        3 

1 

14562.40 

860.26 

5.91 

Masher's  Elsie  24986,  A.  R.  1967       .     .      3 

6 

14458.70 

745.75 

5.16 

Miranda  of  Edgewater  30970,  A.  R.  2363      3 

0 

14617.30 

730.49 

5.00 

Sweet  Maria  25151,  A.  R.  1803     ...      3 

0 

12542.50 

682.86 

5.44 

Class  F  —  ai  to  3  years 

Langwater  Hope  27946,  A.  R.  1978      .      2 

7 

15078.80 

773.59 

5.13 

Azucena's  Pride  2d  24957,  A.  R.  1469     .      2 

9 

12633.30 

706.46 

5.59 

Rose  of  Langwater  24204,  A.  R.  1445     .       2 

7 

12966.50 

669.89 

5.17 

Imp.  Buttercup  II  of  the  Beauregard 

35799   A   R  2638                                         2 

11 

10623.30 

659.71 

6.21 

May  Belle  of  Linda  Vista  29679,  A.R. 

2134  2 

7 

11981.76 

653.02 

5.43 

Class  G  —  2  to  a  J  years 

Dolly  Dimple  19144,  A.  R.  628     ...      2 

2 

14009.13 

703.36 

5.02 

Golden  Elsie  2d  33422,  A.  R.  2274    .     .      2 

0 

13409.00 

672.94 

5.02 

Princess  Deasie  36703,  A.  R.  2275     .     .      2 

3 

11943.10 

666.22 

5.58 

Nellie  Tostevin  of  Mapleton  3d  30318, 

A   R   2121                                       ...      2 

4 

11675.90 

664.01 

5.69 

Langwater  Princess  22138,  A.  R.  1044      .      2 

4 

12280.50 

651.19 

5.30 

The  average  of  these  35  leading  Guernsey  cows  is  14597.73  Ib.  milk;    771.37  Ib. 
butter  fat.    Average  per  cent  of  butter  fat,  5.28. 


340 


APPENDIX 


Summary  of  3047  Advanced  Regiser  Records 


Class  A  912  Cows,  Average 
Class  B  158  Cows,  Average  . 
Class  C  249  Cows,  Av 
Class  D  230  Cows,  Average 
Class  E  309  Cows,  Average  . 
Class  F  390  Cows,  Average 
Class  G  799  Cows,  Average  . 
Av.  for  3047    . 


LB.  MILK 
?e  9784.00 
?e  9598.44 
je  8863.14 

LB.  B.  F. 

483.11 
478.31 
446.50 

%  B.  F. 
4.937 
4.983 
5.037 

?e  8610.65 
?e  8069.66 
?e  7755.55 

434.04 
412.05 
395.98 

5.040 
5.106 
5.105 

?e  7464.59 
8568.86 

369.15 
427.75 

4.945 
4.991 

SOME  RESULTS  ATTAINED  IN  OFFICIAL  TESTING  OF  HOLSTEIN- 
FRIESIAN  Cows  FOR  MILK  AND  FAT,  OCTOBER  IST,  1913 

Leading  Holstein-Friesian  Cows  and  Heifers,  by  Classes,  in  the 
7 -Day  Division 

Full-aged  Cows  (Class  5) 


Name  and  A.  R.  Number  of  Cow 

H.B. 

Num- 
ber 

Age  at 
Time  of 
Calving 

Pounds 
of 
Milk 

Av. 
Per 

Cent 

Lb.  of 
Butter 
Fat 

K.  P.  Pontiac  Lass      .... 

11168 

106812 

5     5  20 

585.9 

6.03 

35.343 

De  Kol  Queen  La  Polka  2d      . 

7765 

72325 

6     5  29 

841.8 

3.36 

28.305 

Senior 

Four-Year-Olds 

(Class  4J) 

Agatha  Pontiac      

11167 

99818 

4     9   15 

575.8 

5.13 

29.520 

Belle  Pietertje  De  Kol  Parana 

8554 

79149 

4  10  19 

684.6 

3.52 

24.094 

Junior 

Four-Year-Olds 

(Class  4) 

Fairmont  Zerma  Segis  Pietje    . 

11560 

107672 

4     1   11 

608.4 

4.68 

28.484 

Lieuwkje  Korndyke     .... 

14877 

120296 

4     1    11 

690.4 

3.71 

25.633 

Senior  Three-Year-Olds  (Class  Si) 

Johanna  Korndyke  Aaggie  .     . 

22782 

139481 

3     6  24 

588.4 

4.67 

27.451 

Friend  Echo  Elnora    .... 

18037 

114198 

3  11  23 

678.5 

3.59 

24.336 

Junior  Three-Year-Olds  (Class  3) 
Finderne  Pietertje  Johanna      .  19022     121082     3     2  13       637.9     4.42       28.164 

Senior  Two- Year-Olds  (Class  21) 

Lockhart  De  Kol 9240     101544     2  11  21       566.9     4.13       23.418 

Inka  Clothilde  2d  Johanna        .  17567     131656     2     9  29       610.5     3.39       20.668 

Junior  Two-Year-Olds  (Class  2) 

Finderne  Pontiac  Netherland   .  18183     133504     2     2  24       567.5     3.98       22.610 
Dutchland  Colantha  Vale    .     .  18976     132794     2     5  14       599.3     3.05       18.294 


APPENDIX 


341 


Leading  Holstein-Friesian  Cows  and  Heifers,  by  Classes,  in  the 
30-Day  Division 

Full-aged  Cows  (Class  5) 

Age  at      Pounds 


Name  and  A.R.  Number  of  Cow 


Time  of 
Calving 


2316.4  5.92 

3376.5  3.44 


Lb  of 
Butter 
Fat 

137.198 
116.085 


2365.5 
2944.0 


4.74 
3.73 


K.  P.  Pontiac  Lass      .     .     .     .11168     106812     5     5  20 
De  Kol  Queen  La  Polka  2d        .     7765       72325     6     5  29 

Senior  Four-Year-Olds  (Class  4|) 

Agatha  Pontiac 11167       99818     4     9  15 

Chimacum  Wayne  Boon       .     .   13094     111306     474 

Junior  Four-Year-Olds  (Class  4) 

Fairview  Rag  Apple  De  Kol     .  17094     166790    4     4  13 
Jessie  Fobes  Bessie  Homestead      9555     100742     4     1   18 

Senior  Three- Year-Olds  (Class  3J) 
Friend  Echo  Elnora    ....  18037     114198     3  11  23     2899.1     3.50     101.585 

Junior  Three- Year-Olds  (Class  3) 

Findsrne  Pietertje  Johanna       .   19022     121082     3     2   13     2701.7     4.19 
K.  P.  Metis 11754     110268     3     4  24     2743.9     3.81 

Senior  Two-Year-Olds  (Class  2J) 

Lockhart  De  Kol 9240     101544     21121     2415.9     3.86 

De  Kol  Paul  Cornucopia      .     .11634     110314     21113     2836.5     2.79 

Junior  Two-Year-Olds  (Class  2) 

Finderne  Pontiac  Netherland  .   18183     133504     2     2  24     2329.4     3.80 
Dutchland  Colantha  Vale    .     .  18976     132794     2     5  14     2458.6     2.95 


2215.8     4.25 
2886.0     3.94 


112.081 
109.773 


117.587 
113.727 


113.260 
104.472 


93.226 
79.094 


88.575 
72.495 


Leading  Holstein-Friesian  Cows  and  Heifers,  by  Classes,  in  the 
Semi-Official  Yearly  Division 

Semi-Official  Yearly  or  Lactation  Records 

Full-aged  Cows  (Class  5) 

Banostine  Belle  De  Kol     .  10126     90441     5     2  22     365     27404.4     3.86  1058.34 
Creamelle  Vale    ....     5280      73357     7     9     0     365     29591.4     3.12     924.68 

Senior  Four-Year-Olds  (Class  41) 
Vale  De  Kol  Elliston    .     .     8301      87448     4     8     4     365     24191.9     3.45     832.33 

Junior  Four-Year-Olds  (Class  4) 

Daisy  Grace  De  Kol     .     .  10243     98228     4     3  13     365     21718.3     4.43     962.80 
Maple  Crest  Pontiac  Girl .   13603    143952     4     5  27     365     22730.2     3.90     887.53 

Senior  Three-Year-Olds  (Class  3$) 

Queen  Juliana  Dirkje    .     .     9211      97608     3  10  13     365     19124.3     4.27     817.38 
Friend  Echo  Elnora .     .     .18037    114198     31123     365     23148.6     3.17     732.70 


342  APPENDIX 

Junior  Three- Year-Olds  (Class  3) 

H.B.        Age  at    Length    Pounds  Av.  Lb.  of 

Name  and  A.  R.  Number  of  Cow       Num-      Time  of      of  of  Per  Butter 

ber         Calving  Record     Milk  Cent        Fat 
Dutchland  Changeling  Co- 
lantha Lad  .....   14928    120762     3     1   16     365     21239.8  3.57  757.37 
Dutchland  Colantha  Mona  15329    120767     3     2     3     365     22645.0  2.65  600.39 

Senior  Two- Year-Olds  (Class  2J) 

K.  P.  Manor  Kate    .     .     .   16568    126416     2     8  20     365     22106.4  3.70  818.73 

Junior  Two-Year-Olds  (Class  2) 

Woodcrest  Rifton  Lassie    .13380    116441     2     123     365     19560.9  3.71  726.66 

Dutchland  Colantha  Vale  .  18976    132794     2     5  14     365     22750.2  3.02  685.95 

LEADING  AYRSHIRE  Cows  AND  HEIFERS  THAT  HAVE  QUALIFIED 
FOR  ADVANCED  REGISTRY 

Mature  Form  (Five  Years  Old  or  Over ) 

Pounds    Pounds  Pounds  Per 

of  of  of       Cent 

Milk         Fat       Butter    Fat 

27943     Auchenbrain  Brown  Kate  4th      ...  547     23022     917.60      1080     3.99 

Four  Year  Old  Form 
25171     Agnes  Wallace  of  Maple  Grove   .     .     .851     17657     821.45       966     4.65 

Three  Year  Old  Form 
26292     Elizabeth  of  Juneau 523     15122     536.15        631     3.55 

Two  Year  Old  Form 
28520     Castlemain's  Nancy  4th 14495     548.19        645     3.78 


Ayrshire  Cumulative  Records 

Six  Years'  Record 

Pounds       Pounds     Pounds  Average 

Name  of  of  of       Per  Cent 

Milk  Fat         Butter        Fat 

Crimson  Rambler 59446       2124.03       2499       3.60 

Five  Years'  Record 
Lady  Wonder  4th 54765       2104.29       2475       3.81 

Four  Years'  Record 

Bessie  of  Rosemont ,"....     .48475       1999.80       2352       4.14 

Three  Years'  Record 
Lilly  of  Willowtnoor 44047       1717.28       2021       3.86 

Two  Years'  Record 
Imported  Auchenbrain  Brown  Kate  4th      .     .  34206       1377.24       1621       4.05 


APPENDIX 


343 


KILLING  RECORDS 

DRESSING  PERCENTAGES  OF  FIRST  PRIZE  AND  CHAMPION  CAR- 
CASSES AT  THE  INTERNATIONAL  LIVE  STOCK  EXPOSITION, 
1900-1913 


CATTLE  CARCASSES 

HOG  CARCASSES 

WETHER  CARCASSES 

YEAR 

2  jr.  old 

Yearling 

Wt.SOOlb. 
or  more 

% 

Wt.  200 
and  under 
300  Ib. 

Wt.  100 
and  under 
200  Ib. 

Yearling 

% 

Lamb 

% 

TO 

% 

1900 

65.07 

66.2 

1901 

63.15 

66.44 

1902 

.6508 

.6496 

1903 

68.88 

67.16     • 

1904 

66.7 

66.6 

1905 

.667 

.6488 

1906 

69.5 

67.1 

87.60 

86.52 

83.41 

61.94 

54.24 

1907 

66.64 

63. 

87.09 

89.25 

85.22 

57.86 

50.52 

1908 

65.55 

67.47 

89.6 

88.9 

88.6 

59.88 

57.25 

1909 

66.8 

65.8 

t 

t 

t 

63.48 

60.64 

1910 

66.91 

66.43 

84.9 

86.   ' 

81.8 

58.8 

56.4 

1911 

.662 

.678 

86.3 

86.9 

83.5 

60.45 

55.24 

1912 

67.13 

65.09 

85.77 

79.33 

81.30 

60. 

55.13 

1913 

66.97 

65.80 

87.96 

92. 

88.31 

62.68 

54.76 

*  No  killing  tabulations  for  swine  and  sheep  were  available  during  the  years 
1900  to  1905,  inclusive. 

t  No  tabulation  printed,  but  the  percentages  range  from  73.48  to  87.42  on  22 
swine  carcasses  exhibited.  —  Compiled  by  Dewitt  C.  Wing,  Breeders'  Gazette,  Chi- 
cago, 111. 

SHEARING  RECORDS 
FLEECE  RECORDS  OF  EWES  FROM  ILLINOIS  UNIVERSITY  FLOCK 


Shropshire 


287038 

351061 
369856 


341212 
341219 
371033 
371027 
375445 


No. 

SEASONS 
SHEARED 

3 
3 
1 
1 
4 
4 
2 
1 


PER  YEAR 

7.3 
7.48 
9.25 
6.33 

11.4 
8.56 

10. 
9.5 
7.9 


NUMBER 

375446 
385052 
385035 
385036 
385038 
385039 
385040 
385041 
385042 


PER  YEAI 
7. 
5.4 
8.25 
9.75 
7.8 
8.75 
7.8 
7.5 
7.5 


344 


APPENDIX 


ASSOCIATION 
NUMBER 

No. 

SEASONS 
SHEARED 

AVERAGE 
LB.  OP  WOOL 
PER  YEAR 

ASSOCIATION 
NUMBER 

No. 

SEASONS 
SHEARED 

AVERAGE 
LB.  OF  WOOL 
PER  YEAR 

385020 

1 

7.8 

295406 

1 

8.3 

385050 

1 

6.75 

306662 

1 

8.7 

385028 

1 

5.4 

344989 

1 

9.3 

385029 

1 

5.4 

344982 

1 

8.5 

385030 

1 

6.5 

325910 

2 

9.85 

385047 

1 

4.8 

325912 

2 

8.8 

385051 

1 

7.5 

325913 

2 

9.4 

385049 

1 

10.75 

325914 

2 

11.95 

385032 

1 

6.4 

372654 

2 

9.25 

268052 

2 

9. 

321329 

1 

7.7 

287032 

2 

8.6 

226302 

2 

6.65 

287009 

2 

8. 

345311 

2 

9.15 

351060 

1 

5.6 

341211 

I 

9.7 

341214 

2 

10.5 

341213 

2 

11.55 

341215 

2 

9.75 

341218 

1 

9.2 

341216 

2 

9.75 

344974 

1 

7.4 

292589 

1 

9.7 

Hampshires 

24776 

3 

7.77 

34484 

1 

9.75 

22359 

4 

9.22 

34937 

1 

9. 

25110 

4 

9.45 

34936 

1 

7.2 

22280 

4 

9.1 

34935 

1 

8.5 

22339 

4 

8.97 

14364 

1 

7.15 

24701 

4 

9.36 

22196 

2 

9.4 

24706 

4 

7.06 

22171 

1 

8.2 

34485  ' 

1 

9.5 

22198 

1 

6.2 

34482 

1 

8.5 

11550 

5 

7.4 

34483 

1 

8. 

22198 

2 

9.1 

Southdown 

30561 

5 

7.28 

29521 

1 

5.7 

30563 

4 

6.55 

30574 

1 

4.5 

29519 

5 

5. 

30575 

1 

5.5 

30565 

5 

7.7 

26193 

1 

7.7 



1 

6.2 

30567 

3 

7.87 

29363 

5 

6.65 

16220 

4 

3.92 

30566 

4 

7.32 

18883 

3 

6.66 

29521 

2 

5.15 

16072 

2 

6.12 

30568 

3 

6.17 

16072 

6 

5.93 

30570 

1 

7.7 

20182 

5 

5.6 

30571 

1 

5.25 

16072 

1 

5.4 

30572 

1 

5. 



2 

5.5 

APPENDIX 


345 


ASSOCIATION 
NUMBER 

No.- 

SEASONS 
SHEARED 

LBAVoE*WoEoL         ASSOCIATE 
PER  YEAR               NUMBER 

No.            AVERAGE 
SEASONS     LB.  OF  WOOL 
SHEARED       PER  YEAR 



4 

5.57                30562 

4 

7. 



3 

5.1                  30564 

3 

5.2 

24115 

2 

6.1 

1 

7.1 



2 

6.                    29520 

3 

7.1 



2 

4.45 

Rambouillet 

71541 

3 

19.3                   67403 

3 

14.7 

71542 

3 

15.5                  67404 

3 

14.9 

71543 

3 

17.75                20170 

5 

11.23 

t!544 

3 

21.65                20171 

4 

10.7 

71545 

3 

17.9                  34037 

8 

13.9 

51068 

6 

14.9                  34038 

7 

12.16 

51070 

6 

14.5                  34040 

1 

13.7 

51073 

6 

13.14                34041 

6 

11.6 

54300 

5 

13.73                34042 

3 

11.9 

67398 

3 

16.5                  34043 

7 

13.5 

67408 

3 

16.95                43217 

5 

10.6 

67411 

3 

15.68                43213 

5 

10. 

73338 

1 

14.75                48450 

3 

10. 

73339 

2 

14.75                48451 

4 

9.6 

73340 

2 

13.1                  48452 

4 

11.05 

73342 

2 

12.                    51067 

1 

12. 

73344 

1 

12.8                  51071 

4 

12. 

71546 

2 

14.8                  51072 

4 

10.8 

34039 

5 

13.4                  54298 

4 

15.2 

34042 

5 

13.2                  54301 

2 

11.6 

54297 

4 

15.2                  67400 

1 

21.4 

54299 

4 

13.9                  67402 

2 

11.3 

67399 

1 

15.8 

Oxford  Down 

62777 

I 

9.1                   65551 

1 

9.5 

65700 

1 

10.5                   65552 

1 

11.4 

Dorset  Ewes 

7271 

1 

5.6                   13795 

1 

7.8 

11432 

1 

4.1                    13798 

1 

5.6 

Tunis  Sheep 

1385 

1 

6.                        1991 

1 

8.5 

1989 

1 

6.5 

1 

5. 

1024 

1 

4.8 

1 

7.5 

—  Compiled  by  Prof.  W.  C. 

Coffey 

,  Urbana,  111. 

346  APPENDIX 

THE  SCALE  OF  POINTS 

The  following  scales  of  points  have  been  furnished  by 
the  secretaries  of  those  breed  associations  which  have 
adopted  them. 

American  Saddle  Horse 

SHOW  RING  CLASSIFICATION  ADOPTED  BY  THE  STOCKHOLDERS 
OF  THE  AMERICAN  SADDLE  HORSE  BREEDERS'  ASSOCIATION, 
ANNUAL  MEETING,  APRIL,  1910 

The  Saddle  horse  must  be  sound,  of  good  conformation,  sub- 
stance, finish,  style,  and  shown  without  artificial  appliances,  and 
up  to  carrying  at  least  one  hundred  and  sixty  (160)  pounds. 

The  three-gaited  horse  should  go  plain  walk,  briskly  and  with 
speed  equal  to  four  (4)  miles  an  hour ;  canter  reasonably  high  and 
gentle ;  trot,  steady,  straight  and  true ;  action  enough  to  be  at- 
tractive; well  balanced  and  with  speed  equal  to  twelve  (12)  miles 
an  hour. 

Added  to  the  foregoing  the  five-gaited  horse  should  go  running 
walk,  fox  trot  or  slow  pace,  smoothly  and  equal  to  six  (6)  miles 
an  hour;  rack  easily  without  being  forced,  with  speed  equal  to 
twelve  (12)  miles  an  hour.  Must  stand  quietly,  back  readily 
and  lead  with  either  foot  in  a  canter  from  a  halt. 

High  rate  of  speed  and  racing  is  forbidden. 

High  School  Gaits  are  not  Saddle  Gaits.  It  is  understood  that 
an  animal  which  has  been  educated  in  high  school  may  inad- 
vertently show  a  step  or  two  in  this  school  when  changing  suit. 
Such  evidence  is  not  to  disqualify  a  horse,  though  it  is  objection- 
able, but  any  intentional  exhibition  of  high  school  is  prohibited 
and  shall  disqualify  an  entry. 

Shetland  Pony 
Scale  of  Points 

Constitution.  —  Constitution  indicated  by  general  healthy 
appearance,  perfect  respiration,  brightness  of  eye  ...  10 

Size.  —  Ponies  over  four  years  old  42  inches  and  under  in 
height,  two  points  to  be  deducted  for  every  inch  over  42 
inches  up  to  46  inches,  fractional  portions  to  count  as  full 
inches  25 

Head.  —  Head  symmetrical,  rather  small  and  fine,  wide 
between  eyes,  ears  short  and  erect 10 

Body.  —  Barrel  well  rounded,  back  short  and  level,  deep 
chest,  good  breast,  compact  "pony  build" 10 


APPENDIX  347 

Legs.  —  Legs  muscular,  flat-boned,  hind  legs  not  cow-hocked 

or  too  crooked 25 

Mane  and  tail.  —  Foretop,  mane  and  tail  heavy      ....  10 

Feet.  —  Good 10 

Too 

ABERDEEN-ANGUS  CATTLE  —  SCALE  OF  POINTS 

PERFECT 
SCORE 

1.  Color.  —  Black ;   white  is  objectionable,  except  on 

the  under  line  behind  the  navel,  and  there  only  to 
moderate  extent;  a  white  scrotum  is  most  un- 
desirable    3 

2.  Head.  —  Forehead  broad  ;   face  slightly  prominent, 

and  tapering  toward  the  nose,  muzzle  fine ; 
nostrils  wide  and  open ;  distance  from  eyes  to 
nostrils  of  moderate  length ;  eyes  mild,  full  and 
expressive,  indicative  of  good  disposition ;  ears 
of  good  medium  size,  well  set  and  well  covered 
with  hair;  poll  well  denned,  and  without  any 
appearance  of  horns  or  scurs  ;  jaws  clean  ...  10 

3.  Throat.  —  Clean,  without  any  development  of  loose 

flesh  underneath 3 

4.  Neck.  —  Of  medium  length,  muscular,  with  mod- 

erate crest  (which  increases  with  age),  spreading 

out  to  meet  the  shoulders,  with  full  neck  vein    .     .          3 

5.  Shoulders.  —  Moderately  oblique,  well  covered  on 

the  blades  and  top;  with  vertebra  or  backbone 
slightly  above  the  scapula  or  shoulder  blades, 
which  should  be  moderately  broad 6 

6.  Chest.  —  Wide  and  deep ;    also  round  and  full  just 

back  of  elbows 10 

7.  Brisket.  —  Deep  and   moderately   projecting  from 

between  the  legs,  and  proportionately  covered  with 
flesh  and  fat 4 

8.  Ribs.  —  Well  sprung  from  the  backbone,  arched  and 

deep,  neatly  jointed  to  the  crops  and  loins      .     .          8 

9.  Back.  —  Broad  and  straight  from  crops  to  hooks ; 

loins  strong ;  hook  bones  moderate  in  width,  not 
prominent,  and  well  covered ;  rumps  long,  full, 
level  and  rounded  neatly  into  hindquarters  .  .  10 
10.  Hindquarters.  —  Deep  and  full ;  thighs  thick  and 
•muscular,  and  in  proportion  to  hindquarters; 
twist  filled  out  well  in  its  "seam,"  so  as  to  form  an 
even,  wide  plain  between  the  thighs 8 


348  APPENDIX 


PERFECT 
SCORE 


11.  Tail.  —  Fine,  coming  neatly  out  of  the  body  on  a 

line  with  the  back  and  hanging  at  right  angles  to 

it       . 3 

12.  Under  line.  —  Straight  as  nearly  as  possible ;   flank 

deep  and  full 4 

13.  Legs.  —  Short,  straight  and  squarely  placed,  hind 

legs  slightly  inclined  forward  below  the  hocks; 
forearm  muscular ;  bones  fine  and  clean  ...  4 

14.  Flesh.  —  Even  and  without  patchiness       ....          4 

15.  Skin.  —  Of  moderate  thickness  and  mellow  touch, 

abundantly  covered  with  thick,  soft  hair  (much 
of  the  thriftiness,  feeling  properties  and  value  of 
the  animal  depends  on  this  quality,  which  is  of 
great  weight  in  the  grazier's  and  butcher's  judg- 
ment. A  good  "touch  "  will  compensate  for  some 
deficiencies  of  form.  Nothing  can  compensate  for 
a  skin  hard  and  stiff.  In  raising  the  skin  from 
the  body  it  should  have  a  substantial,  soft,  flex- 
ible feeling,  and  when  beneath  the  outspread 
hand  it  should  move  easily  as  though  resting  on  a 
soft,  cellular  substance,  which,  however,  becomes 
firmer  as  the  animal  ripens.  A  thin,  papery  skin 
is  objectionable,  especially  in  cold  climate)  .  .  10 

16.  General  appearance.  —  Elegant,  well  bred  and  mas- 

culine.    The  walk  square,  the  step  quick  and  the 

head  up 10 

Perfection 100 

When  bulls  are  exhibited  with  their  progeny  in  a  separate 
class,  add  25  points  for  progeny. 

HEREFORD  CATTLE  —  SCORE  CARD 

Color,  5  points  — 

Medium,  deep,  rich  red,  with  white  head,  breast,  belly,  crest, 

switch  and  ankles. 
Objections.     White  back  of  crop  high  on  flank  or  too  high  on 

legs. 
Head,  8  points  — 

Forehead  broad  and  prominent,  face  short,  slightly  tapering 
towards  nose ;  muzzle  full ;  nostrils  wide  and  open  ;  eyes 
large  and  expressive ;  ears  of  medium  size,  well  set  and  well 


APPENDIX  349 

covered    with    hair;    horns   of   medium    size,   even   color, 
coming  from  head  at  right  angles,  set  on  level  with  crops, 
back  and  tail  head,  curving  forward  and  downward. 
Throat,  2    points  — 
Clean,  without  any  excessive  development  of  loose  flesh  or 

fat  underneath. 
Neck,  2  points  — 

Short,  neat,  spreading  out  to  meet  shoulders,  with  full  neck 
vein,  free  from  loose  skin.     (Males :    neck  muscular,  with 
full  crest  according  to  age.) 
Shoulders,  6  points  — 

Straight,  round,  full,  smooth  and  well  covered  ;  top  of  shoulder 

blades  slightly  below  vertebra,  good  width  on  top. 
Chest,  6  points  — 

Wide,  deep,  round  and  full  just  back  of  shoulders. 
Brisket,  2  points  — 

Deep  and  wide,  moderately  projecting,  free  from  flabbiness. 
Ribs,  S  points  — 

Well  sprung  from  backbone,  close  together,  long  and  arched, 
carrying  the  full  width  of  shoulders  and  deeply  and  smoothly 
covered. 
Back  and  loin,  10  points  — 

Broad,   straight  and  heavily  covered  from  crops  to  hooks, 

hooks  moderately  wide  and  well  covered. 
Rump,  5  points  — 

Long,   wide,   smooth   and   well   covered,    carrying   width   in 
proportion  to  width  of  back  and  hooks,  joining  smoothly 
into  quarters. 
Quarters,  4  points  — 

Long,  straight,  muscular,  full,  deep  and  thick. 
Thigh  and  twist,  3  points  — 

Full  and  thick,  carried  well  down  to  hocks. 
Tail,  1  point  — 
Tail  level  with  line  of  back,  tail  dropping  at  right  angles  to 

back  line. 
Under  linf,  3  points  — 

Straight,  flanks  deep  and  full. 
Legs,  6  points  — 

Short,  straight  and  squarely  placed,  perpendicular  both  from 
side  and  end  view,  forearm  muscular,  bones  strong  and 
clean. 
Flesh,  8  points  — 

Deep,  firm,  smooth,  uniform  covering  of  all  parts  and  free  from 
patchiness. 


350  APPENDIX 


Skin,  6  points  — 

Of  moderate  thickness,  mellow,  pliable  and  loose,  abundantly 

covered  with  long,  thick,  silky  hair. 
General  appearance,  10  points  — 

Vigorous,   compact  and  symmetrical.     Bulls   masculine  and 
possessing  an  abundance  of  quality  and  predominant  breed- 
ing   characteristics.     Females    matronly,   roomy,    smooth, 
showing  quality  and  feminine  appearance  throughout. 
Weight,  5  points  — 
Age  and  condition  to  be  considered. 

The  following  are  the  average  weights  of  all   Herefords  ex- 
hibited at  the  American  Royal  Show  for  five  years  : 

Aged  bulls 2238  Aged  cows 1689 

Two-year-old  bulls    .     .  1911  Two-year-old  heifers      .  1517 

Senior  yearling  bulls       .  1439  Senior  yearling  heifers   .  1269 

Junior  yearling  bulls       .  1318  Junior  yearling  heifers   .  1128 

Senior  bull  calves      .     .  979  Senior  heifer  calves   .     .  828 

Junior  bull  calves      .     .  748  Junior  heifer  calves  .     .  634 


GALLOWAY  CATTLE  —  SCORE  CARD 

Color  —  Black,  with  a  brownish  tinge. 

Head  —  Short  and  wide,  with  broad  forehead  and  wide  nostrils ; 
without  the  slightest  symptoms  of  horns  or  seurs. 

Eyes  —  Large  and  prominent. 

Ear  —  Moderate  in  length  and  broad,  pointing  forwards  and  up- 
wards with  fringe  of  long  hairs. 

Neck  —  Moderate  in  length,  clean  and  filling  well  into  the 
shoulders ;  the  top  in  a  line  with  the  back  in  a  female,  and 
in  a  male  naturally  rising  with  age. 

Body  —  Deep,  rounded  and  symmetrical. 

Shoulders  —  Fine  and  straight,  moderately  wide  above ;  coarse 
shoulder  points  and  sharp  or  high  shoulders  are  objec- 
tionable. 

Breast  —  Full  and  deep. 

Back  and  rump  —  Straight. 

Ribs  —  Deep  and  well  sprung. 

Loin  and  sirloin  —  Well  filled. 

Hook  bones  —  Not  prominent. 

Hindquarters  —  Long,  moderately  wide  and  well  filled. 

Flank  —  Deep  and  full. 

Thighs  —  Broad,  straight  and  well  let  down  to  hock ;  rounded 
buttocks  are  very  objectionable. 


APPENDIX  351 

Legs  —  Short  and  clean,  with  fine  bone. 
Tail  —  Well  set  on,  and  moderately  thick. 
Skin  —  Mellow  and  moderately  thick. 

Hair  —  Soft  and  wavy,  with  mossy  undercoat ;    wiry  or  curly 
hair  is  very  objectionable. 

The  last  point  is  a  very  important  one.  Some  animals  are 
without  this  thick  mossy  covering,  which  should,  in  the  very 
best  hides,  have  a  feeling  akin  to  a  sealskin  jacket.  The  great 
advantage  of  such  a  covering  is  obvious.  In  cold  or  windy 
weather  it  has  warmth  and  on  wet  days  will  throw  off  a  great 
amount  of  rain.  For  the  making  of  fine  robes  it  is  a  necessity  ; 
coarse  hair  will  not  wear  nearly  so  well.  The  defects  specially 
to  be  guarded  against  as  objectionable  are  the  following : 

Galloways  should  not  have 

1.  Narrow,  tapering  muzzle. 

2.  Long,  lean,  narrow  head. 

3.  Small,  dull,  deep-set  eyes. 

4.  Long,  drooping  ears. 

5.  Small,  scraggy  neck. 

6.  Contracted  brisket  or  narrow,  sunken  chest. 

7.  Bare  shoulders,  narrow  on  top. 

8.  Flatness  behind  the  shoulders. 

9.  Light  fore  or  back  ribs. 

10.  Prominent  hook  bones. 

11.  High  or  drooping  rumps. 

12.  Weak  or  slack  loins. 

13.  Bare  or  rough  back,  lacking  flesh. 

14.  Rounded  buttocks. 

15.  Double  thighs. 

16.  Coarse,  big  bones. 

17.  Thick,  stiff  skin. 

•  18.    Hard,  wiry  or  too  curly  hair. 

19.  Hair  without  soft  undercoat. 

20.  Rough,  angular  form. 

These  defects  should  be  avoided  by  the  careful  breeder.  It  is 
hard  to  get  a  herd  without  some  of  these  faults,  but  a  knowledge 
of  what  should  be  shunned  will  assist  in  bringing  a  herd  up  to  a 
good  standard  of  excellence. 


352  APPENDIX 

JERSEY  CATTLE  —  SCORE  CARD 

Cow 
Name 

BY  SCALE  OP  POINTS  ADOPTED  BY  THE  AMERICAN  JERSEY  CATTLE  CLUB, 
MAY  7.  1913 

Dairy  Temperament  and  Constitution 

COUNTS 
Head,  7.  — 

A  —  Medium  size,  lean ;  face  dished ;  broad 
between  eyes;  horns  medium  size,  in- 
curving    3  .  .  .  . 

B  —  Eyes  full  and  placid ;  ears  medium  size, 
fine,  carried  alert ;  muzzle  broad,  with 
wide-open  nostrils  and  muscular  lips ; 

jaw  strong 4    .  .  .  . 

Neck,  4.  — 

Thin,  rather  long,  with  clean  throat,  neatly 

joined  to  head  and  shoulders 4    .  .  .  . 

Body,  37.  — 

A  —  Shoulders  light,  good  distance  through 
from  point  to  point,  but  thin  at  withers ; 
chest  deep  and  full  between  and  just 
back  of  forelegs 5  .  .  .  . 

B  —  Ribs  amply  sprung  and  wide  apart,  giving 
wedge  shape,  with  deep,  large  abdomen, 
firmly  held  up,  with  strong,  muscular 
development 10  .  .  .  . 

C  —  Back  straight  and  strong,  with  prominent 

spinal  processes ;  loins  broad  and  strong  5    .  .  .  . 

D  —  Rump  long  to  tail-setting,  and  level  from 
hip  bones  to  rump  bones 

E  —  Hip  bones  high  and  wide  apart        .     .     . 

F  —  Thighs  flat  and  wide  apart,  giving  ample 

room  for  udder 3    .  . 

G  —  Legs  proportionate  to  size  and  of  fine  qual- 
ity, well  apart,  with  good  feet,  and  not 
to  weave  or  cross  in  walking  ....  2  .  . 

H  —  Hide  loose  and  mellow 2    .  . 

/  —  Tail  thin,   long,   with  good  switch,   not 

coarse  at  setting-on 1    .  . 


APPENDIX  353 

Mammary  Development 

COUNTS 
Udder,  26.  — 

A  —  Large  size,  flexible  and  not  fleshy    .     .     .  6    

B  —  Broad,  level  or  spherical,  not  deeply  cut 

between  teats         4    

C  —  Fore  udder  full  and  well  rounded,  running 

well  forward  of  front  teats       .     .     .     .         10    

D  —  Rear  udder  well  rounded,  and  well  out 

and  up  behind       .     . 6    

Teats,  8.  — 

Of  good  and  uniform  length  and  size,  regularly 

and  squarely  placed 8    

Milk  Veins,  4.  — 

Large,  long,  tortuous  and  elastic,  entering  large 

and  numerous  orifices 4    

Size,  4.  — 

Mature  cows,  800  to  1000  pounds 4    

General  Appearance,  10. — 

A  symmetrical  balancing  of  all  the  parts,  and  a 
proportion  of  parts  to  each  other,  depending 
on  size  of  animal,  with  the  general  appearance 
of  a  high-class  animal,  with  capacity  for  food 

and  productiveness  at  pail 10    

100 


Date 191.. 

Bull 


Name 


PY  SCALE  OP  POINTS  ADOPTED  BY  THE  AMERICAN  JERSEY  CATTLE  CLUB, 

MAY  7,  1913 
Head,  10.  — 

A  —  Broad,  medium  length  ;  face  dished  ;  nar- 
row between  horns ;  horns  medium  in 

size  and  incurving 5    .... 

B  —  Muzzle  broad,  nostrils  open,  eyes  full  and 
bold ;  entire  expression  one  of  vigor, 
resolution  and  masculinity  ....  5  .... 

Neck,  7.  — 

Medium  length,  with  full  crest  at  maturity ; 

clean  at  throat 7    .... 

2  A 


354  APPENDIX 

COUNTS 
Body,  57.  — 

A  —  Shoulders  full  and  strong,  good  distance 
through  from  point  to  point,  with  well- 
defined  withers ;    chest  deep  and  full 
between  and  just  back  of  forelegs     .     .         15    .  . . . 
B  —  Barrel  long,  of  good  depth  and  breadth, 

with  strong,  rounded,  well-sprung  ribs         15 

C  —  Back  straight  and  strong        5    .  .  .  . 

D  —  Rump  of  good  length  and  proportion  to 
size  of  body,  and  level  from  hip  bones  to 

rump  bones 7    .  .  .  . 

E  —  Loins  broad  and  strong ;  hips  rounded,  and 

of  medium  width  compared  with  female  7    .  .  .  . 

F  —  Thighs  rather  flat,  well  cut  up  behind, 

high  arched  flank 3    .  .  .  . 

G  —  Legs  proportionate  to  size  and  of  fine  qual- 
ity, well  apart,  with  good  feet,  and  not 
to  weave  or  cross  in  walking  .  .  .  5  .  . .  . 

Rudimentary  Teats,  2.  —  Well  placed      ....  2    

Hide,  2.  —  Loose  and  mellow         2    .  .  .  . 

Tail,  2.  — 
Thin,  long,  reaching  the  hock,  with  good  switch, 

not  coarse  or  high  at  setting-on 2    .  .  .  . 

Size,  5.  — 

Mature  bulls,  1200  to  1500  pounds     .     ...          5    .  .  .  . 

General  Appearance,  15.  — 

Thoroughly  masculine  in  character,  with  a  har- 
monious blending  of  the  parts  to  each  other ; 
thoroughly  robust,  and  such  an  animal  as  in  a 
herd  of  wild  cattle  would  likely  become  master 
of  the  herd  by  the  law  of  natural  selection  and 
survival  of  the  fittest     .     .     .     .     .  . .     ,     .         15    .  .  . . 

100 

Date...  ..191.. 

Sc, 

GUERNSEY  CATTLE  —  SCALE  OF  POINTS 

Cow 

Dairy  Clean-cut,  lean  face  ;    strong  sinewy 

Temperament,         jaw ;    wide  muzzle  with  wide  open 
Constitution,  nostrils ;  full,  bright  eye  with  quiet 

38  and   gentle   expression ;     forehead 

long  and  broad        5 


APPENDIX  355 

COUNTS 

Long,  thin  neck  with  strong  juncture 
to  head  ;  clean  throat.  Backbone 
rising  well  between  shoulder  blades ; 
large  rugged  spinal  processes,  in- 
dicating good  development  of  the 

spinal  cord 5 

Pelvis  arching  and  wide ;  rump  long ; 
wide,  strong  structure  of  spine  at 
setting  on  of  tail.  Long,  thin  tail 
with  good  switch.  Thin  incurving 

thighs 5 

Ribs  amply  and  fully  sprung  and  wide 
apart,  giving  an  open,  relaxed  con- 
formation ;   thin  arching  flanks      .       5 
Abdomen  large  and  deep,  with  strong 
muscular  and  navel  development, 
indicative  of  capacity  and  vitality      15 
Hide  firm  yet  loose,  with  an  oily  feel- 
ing and  texture,  but  not  thick        .       3 
Milking  Marks  Escutcheon  wide  on  thighs  ;  high  and 
denoting  broad,  with  thigh  ovals    ....       2 

Quantity  of         Milk  veins  long,  crooked,  branching 
Flow  and  prominent,  with  large  or  deep 

10  wells 8 

Udder  Udder  full  in  front 8 

Formation  Udder  full  and  well  up  behind       .     .       8 

26  Udder  of  large  size  and  capacity  .     .       4 

Teats  well  apart,  squarely  placed,  and 

of  good  and  even  size        ....       6 
Indicating  Skin  deep  yellow  in  ear,  on  end  of  bone 

Color  of  Milk,         of  tail,  at  base  of  horns,  on  udder, 
15  teats,  and  body  generally.     Hoofs 

amber-colored 15 

Milking  Marks  Udder  showing  plenty  of  substance 

denoting  Qual-       but  not  too  meaty 6 

ity  of  Flow 

6 

Symmetry  and   Color  of  hair  a  shade  of  fawn,  with 

Size,  white     markings.      Cream-colored 

5  nose.    Horns  amber-colored,  small, 

curved,  and  not  coarse     ....       3 
Size  for  the  breed  :  —  Mature   cows, 

four  years  old  or  over,  about  1050  Ib.  2 

100 


356 


APPENDIX 


Bull 

Dairy  Clean-cut,  lean  face  ;    strong  sinewy 

Temperament,  jaws ;  wide  muzzle  with  wide-open 
Constitution,  nostrils  ;  full  bright  eye  with  quiet 

38  and   gentle    expression ;     forehead 

long  and  broad 

Long    masculine    neck    with    strong 
juncture   to   head;     clean   throat. 
Backbone     rising     well     between 
shoulder     blades ;      large     rugged 
spinal    processes,    indicating   good 
development  of  the  spinal  cord 
Pelvis  arching  and  wide ;  rump  long ; 
wide,  strong  structure  of  spine  at 
setting  of  tail.     Long,  thin  tail  with 
good  switch.  Thin  incurving  thighs 
Ribs  amply  and  fully  sprung  and  wide 
apart,  giving  an  open  relaxed  con- 
formation ;  thin,  arching  flank  . 
Abdomen  large  and  deep,  with  strong 
muscular  and  navel  development, 
indicative  of  capacity  and  vitality 
Hide  firm  yet  loose,  with  an  oily  feel- 
ing and  texture,  but  not  thick    . 
Dairy  As  shown  by  having  a  great  deal  of 

Prepotency,  vigor,  style,  alertness,  and  resolute 

15  appearance 

Rudimen-  Rudimentaries  of  good  size,  squarely 

taries  and  and  broadly  placed  in  front  of  and 

Milk  Veins,  free    from    scrotum.     Milk    veins 

10  prominent 

Indicating  Skin  deep  yellow  in  ear,  on  end  of 

Color  of  Milk  bone  of  tail,  at  base  of  horns  and 
in  Offspring,  body  generally ;  hoofs  amber-colored 
15 

Symmetry           Color  of  hair,  a  shade  of  fawn  with 
and  Size,                  white     markings.      Cream-colored 
22                             nose.     Horns  amber-colored,  curv- 
ing and  not  coarse 

Size  for  the  breed :  —  Mature  bulls 

four  years  old  or  over,  about  1500  Ib. 

General  appearance  as  indicative  of 

the  power  to  beget  animals  of  strong 

dairy  qualities 


COUNTS 


15 


10 


15 


10 
100 


APPENDIX 


357 


HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN  CATTLE  —  SCORE  CARD 
Cow 


Name 

Dropped 


Reg.  No. 

Weight .  . 


The  interlines  in  smaller  type  relate  entirely  to  the  method  of  application  agreed 
on  by  the  Inspectors,  in  order  to  secure  uniformity  of  work.     The  a 
e  as  follows  :  vs,  very  slight  ;  s,  slight  ;  m,  marked  ;  vm,  very  marked  ; 


bbreviations 
,  extreme. 


Head 

Forehead 
Face 

Muzzle 
Ears 

Eyes 
Horns 


Neck 


Shoulders 


DESCRIPTION 


Decidedly  feminine  in  appearance; 
fine  in  contour 

Discredit,  vs  i,   s  1,  m  J,  vm  f,  e  1. 

Broad  between  the  eyes ;   dishing 

Discredit,  vs  J,  s  i,  m  J,  vm  },  e  1. 

Of  medium  length ;  clean  and  trim, 
especially  under  the  eyes ;  showing 
facial  veins ;  the  bridge  of  the  nose 
straight 

Discredit,  s  J,  m  J,  e  J. 

Broad,  with  strong  lips        .... 

Discredit,  s  i,  m  i,  e  i 

Of  medium  size  ;  of  fine  texture ;  the 
hair  plentiful  and  soft ;  the  secre- 
tions oily  and  abundant 

Discredit,  m  J,  e  \. 

Large ;   full ;   mild ;  bright 

Discredit,  si,  m  J,  e  J. 

Small ;  tapering  finely  towards  the 
tips;  set  moderately  narrow  at 
base ;  oval ;  inclining  forward  ;  well 
bent  inward ;  of  fine  texture ;  in 
appearance  waxy 

Discredit,  m  i,  e  J. 

Long ;  fine  and  clean  at  juncture  with 
the  head  ;  free  from  dewlap ;  evenly 
and  smoothly  joined  to  shoulders 

Discredit,  vs  J,  s  J,  m  },  vm  j,  e  1. 

Slightly  lower  than  the  hips ;  fine  and 
even  over  tops ;  moderately  broad 
and  full  at  sides 

Discredit,  vs  J,  s  },  m  J,  vm  |,  e  1. 


358 


APPENDIX 


DESCRIPTION 


SCORE 


Chest 


Crops 
Chine 

Barrel 


Loin  and 
Hips 


Rump 


Thurl 
Quarters 

Flanks 
Legs 


Of  moderate  depth  and  lowness ; 
smooth  and  moderately  full  in  the 
brisket ;  full  in  the  foreflanks  (or 
through  at  the  heart)  .  .  .  . 

Discredit,  vs  i,  s  J,  m  1,  vm  1J,  e  2. 

Moderately  full 

Discredit,  vs  J,  s  %,  m  },  vm  1J,  e  2. 

Straight ;  strong ;  broadly  developed, 

with  open  vertebrae 

Discredit,  vs  i,  s  J,  m  \,  vm  f,  e  1. 

Long ;  of  wedge  shape ;  well  rounded  ; 
with  a  large  abdomen,  trimly  held 
up.  (In  judging  the  last  item  age 
must  be  considered.) 

Discredit,  vs  J,  s  1,  m  \,  vm  },  e  1. 

Broad ;  level  or  nearly  level  between 
the  hook  bones ;  level  and  strong 
laterally;  spreading  from  chine 
broadly  and  nearly  level ;  hook 
bones  fairly  prominent  .... 

Discredit,  vs  J,  s  1,  m  J,  vm  f,  e  1. 

Long ;  high ;  broad  with  roomy 
pelvis ;  nearly  level  laterally  ;  com- 
paratively full  above  the  thurl ; 
carried  out  straight  to  dropping  of 


tail 


Discredit,  vs  i,  s  1,  m  J,  vm  J,  e  1. 

High ;   broad 

Discredit,  vs  i,  s  J,  m  1,  vm  1J,  e  2. 

Deep;  straight  behind;  twist  filled 
with  development  of  udder ;  wide 
and  moderately  full  at  the  sides 

Discredit,  vs  i,  s  J,  m  J,  vm  J,  e  1. 

Deep ;   comparatively  full   .... 

Discredit,  vs  i,  s  J,  m  i,  vm  J,  e  1. 

Comparatively  short ;  clean  and 
nearly  straight ;  wide  apart ;  firmly 
and  squarely  set  under  the  body; 
feet  of  medium  size,  round,  solid 
and  deep  

Discredit,  vs  J,  s  i,  m  i,  vm  J,  e  1. 


APPENDIX 


359 


DESCRIPTION 


POSSIBLE 
SCORE 


Dn 


Tail  Large  at  base,  the  setting  well  back ; 

tapering  finely  to  switch ;  the  end 
of  the  bone  reaching  to  hocks  or 
below ;  the  switch  full  .... 

Discredit,  sj,  m  i,  e  J. 

Hair  and  Hair  healthful  in  appearance  ;  fine, 
Handling  soft,  and  furry ;  the  skin  of  medium 
thickness  and  loose ;  mellow  under 
the  hand ;  the  secretions  oily, 
abundant,  and  of  a  rich  brown  or 
yellow  color  

Discredit,  vs  J,  s  1,  m  1,  vm  1J,  e  2. 

Mammary  Very  large ;  very  crooked  (age  must 
Veins  be  taken  into  consideration  in  judg- 
ing of  size  and  crookedness) ;  enter- 
ing very  large  or  numerous  orifices ; 
double  extension  ;  with  special  de- 
velopments, such  as  branches,  con- 
nections, etc 

Discredit,  vs  i,  s  J,  m  1,  vm  1J,  e  2. 

Udder  Very    capacious ;        very       flexible ; 

quarters  even;  nearly  filling  the 
space  in  the  rear  below  the  twist ; 
extending  well  forward  in  the  front ; 
broad  and  well  held  up  .... 

Discredit,  vs  J,  s  J,  m  1,  vm  1},  e  2. 

Teats  Well  formed ;    wide  apart ;     plumb 

and  of  convenient  size      .... 

Discredit,  vs  i,  s  J,  m  1,  vm  1},  e  2. 

Escutcheon     Largest ;   finest 

Discredit,  vs  i,  s  1,  m  2,  vm  3,  e  4. 

"General         For  deficiency  Inspectors  shall  dis- 
Vigor  credit  from  the  total  received  not 

to  exceed  eight  points      .... 

Discredit,  vs  1,  s  2,  m  3,  vm  5,  e  8. 
"General       \  For  deficiency  Inspectors  shall  dis- 
Symmetry    \      credit  from  the  total  received  not 
and    Fine-        to  exceed  eight  points      .... 

ness  Discredit,  vs  1,  s  J,  m  3,  vm  5,  e  8. 


II) 


12 


360 


APPENDIX 


PARTS 

DESCRIPTION 

POSSIBLE 
SCORE 

DIS- 
CREDITS 

^General 
Style  and 
Bearing 

For  deficiency  Inspectors  shall  dis- 
credit from  the  total  received  not 
to  exceed  eight  points      .... 

Discredit,  vs  1,  si,  m  3,  vm  5,  e  8. 

""Credits   for   Excess   of   Require- 
ment in  Production.     A  cow  shall  be 
credited  one  point  in  excess  of  what 
she  is  otherwise  entitled  to,  for  each 
and  every  eight  per  cent  that  her 
milk  or  butter  recorcl   exceeds   the 
minimum  requirement         .... 
*In  scaling  for  the  Advanced  Reg- 
ister, defects  caused  solely  by  age,  or 
by  accident,  or  by  disease  not  heredi- 
tary, shall  not  be  considered.     But  in 
scaling  for  the  show  ring,  such  defects 
shall    be  considered    and    duly  dis- 
credited 

*A  cow  that  in  the  judgment  of  the 
Inspector  will  not  reach  at  full  age, 
in   milking   condition   and   ordinary 
flesh,  1000  lb.,  live  weight,  shall  be 
disqualified  for  entry  in  the  Advanced 
Register         
*No  cow  shall  be  received  to  the 
Advanced     Register    that,   with  all 
credits  due  her,  will  not  scale,  in  the 
judgment  of  the  Inspector,  at  least 
75  points.     (See  in  last  paragraph  of 
Rule  VI   an  exception   to   these  re- 
quirements.) 

Perfection       
Total  discredit    .... 

100 

Net  score        

*  Not  now  in  use  by  Advanced  Register,  but  of  great  value  as  an  aid  in  judging 
cattle. 


APPENDIX 


361 


Bull 


Name. 


.Reg.  No. 


Dropped Weight 

The  interlines  in  smaller  type  relate  entirely  to  the  method  of  application  agreed 
upon  by  the  Inspectors,  in  order  to  secure  uniformity  of  work.  The  abbreviations 
are  as  follows :  va,  very  slight ;  s,  slight ;  m,  marked ;  vm,  very  marked ;  e,  extreme. 


PARTS 


DESCRIPTION 


POSSIBLI 
SCORE 


Dis- 

!REDIT8 


Head 

Forehead 

Face 

Muzzle 
Ears 

Eyes 
Horns 


Neck 


Shoulders 


Showing  full  vigor ;  elegant  in  contour 
Discredit,  vs  J,  s  i,  m  i,  vm  J,  e  1. 

Broad  between  the  eyes ;   dishing 

Discredit,  vs  J,  s  J,  m  J,  vm  1,  e  1. 

Of  medium  length;  clean  and  trim, 
especially  under  the  eyes;  the 
bridge  of  the  nose  straight  . 

Discredit,  s  1,  m  J,  e  $. 

Broad,  with  strong  lips 

Discredit,  s  i,  m  i,  e  J. 

Of  medium  size ;  of  fine  texture ;  the 
hair  plentiful  and  soft ;   the  secre- 
tions oily  and  abundant 
Discredit,  m  J,  e  1. 

Large;   full;   mild;   bright       .     .     . 

Discredit,  s  i,  m  J,  e  J. 

Short ;  of  medium  size  at  base  ;  grad- 
ually diminishing  toward  tips; 
oval ;  inclining  forward ;  moder- 
ately curved  inward ;  of  fine  tex- 
ture ;  in  appearance  waxy  .  .  . 

Discredit,  m  J,  e  J. 

Long ;  finely  crested  (if  the  animal  is 
mature) ;  fine  and  clean  at  junc- 
ture with  the  head ;  nearly  free 
from  dewlap;  strongly  and 
smoothly  joined  to  shoulders  . 

Discredit,  vs  J,  s  1,  m  J,  vm  f,  e  1. 
Of  medium  height ;  of  medium  thick- 
ness, and  smoothly  rounded  at  tops ; 
broad  and  full   at   sides ;     smooth 
over  front       ...:.... 

Discredit,  vs  J,  s  1,  m  J,  vm  f,  e  1. 


362 


APPENDIX 


DESCRIPTION 


POSSIBLE 


Chest 

Crops 
Chine 
Barrel 


Loin  and 
Hips 


Rump 

Thurl 
Quarters 

Flanks 
Legs 


Deep  and  low ;  well  filled  and  smooth 

in  the  brisket ;  broad  between  the 

forearms ;  full  in  the  foreflanks  (or 

through  at  the  heart)        .... 

Discredit,  vs  i,  s  J,  m  1,  vm  1J,  e  2. 

Comparatively  full ;  nearly  level  with 
the  shoulders 

Discredit,  vs  i,  s  J,  m,  1,  vm  1J,  e  2. 

Strong ;  straight ;  broadly  developed, 
with  open  vertebrae 

Discredit,  vs  J,  s  J,  m  J,  vm  J,  e  1. 

Long ;   well  rounded ;   with  large  ab- 
domen, strongly  and   trimly  held 


up 


Discredit,  vs  J,  s  J,  m  1,  vm  1|,  e  2. 

Broad ;  level  or  nearly  level  between 
hook  bones ;  level  and  strong  later- 
ally ;  spreading  out  from  the  chine 
broadly  and  nearly  level ;  the  hook 
bones  fairly  prominent  .  .  .  .% 
Discredit,  vs  J,  s  J,  m  i,  vm  },  e  1. 

Long ;  broad ;  high ;  nearly  level 
laterally ;  comparatively  full  above 
the  thurl ;  carried  out  straight  to 
dropping  of  tail  .  .  v  .  .  . 

Discredit,  vs  i,  s  1,  m  J,  vm  |,  e  1. 

High ;   broad 

Discredit,  vs  1,  s  i,  m  1,  vm  1|,  e  2. 

Deep ;  broad  ;  straight  behind ;  wide 
and  full  at  sides ;  open  in  the  twist 

Discredit,  vs  J,  s  1,  m  i,  vm  J,  e  1. 

Deep;  full . 

Discredit,  vs  i,  s  J,  m  J,  vm  f,  e  1. 

Comparatively  short ;  clean  and 
nearly  straight ;  wide  apart ;  firmly 
and  squarely  set  under  the  body; 
arms  wide,  strong  and  tapering; 
feet  of  medium  size,  round,  solid 
and  deep 

Discredit,  vs  i,  s  i,  m  i,  vm  },  e  1. 


APPENDIX 


363 


Tail 


Hair  and 
Handling 


Mammary 
Veins  . 


Rudimen- 
tary Teats 

Escutcheon 

*General 
Vigor 


^General 
Symmetry 
and   Fine- 
ness 

"General 
Style  and 
Bearing 

*Creditsfor 
Offspring 


Large  at  base,  the  setting  well  back ; 
tapering  finely  to  switch ;  the  end 
of  bone  reaching  to  hocks  or  below ; 
the  switch  full 

Discredit,  s  i,  m  i,  e  i. 

Hair  healthful  in  appearance;  fine, 
soft,  and  furry;  skin  of  medium 
thickness  and  loose ;  mellow  under 
the  hand ;  the  secretions  oily, 
abundant,  and  of  a  rich  brown  or 

yellow  color 

Discredit,  vs  i,  s  J,  m  1,  vm  1J,  e  2. 

Large ;  full ;  entering  large  orifices ; 
double  extension ;  with  special 
development,  such  as  forks, 
branches,  connections,  etc.  .  . 

Discredit,  vs  s  i,  m  1,  vm  1J,  e  2. 

Large ;   well  placed 

Discredit,  vs  t,  s  J,  m  J,  vm  J,  e  1. 

Largest;   finest       

Discredit,  vs  i,  s  1,  m  2,  vm  3,  e  4. 

For  deficiency  Inspectors  shall  dis- 
credit from  the  total  received  not 
to  exceed  eight  points  .... 

Discredit,  vs  1,  s  1,  m  3,  vm  5,  e  8. 

For  deficiency  Inspectors  shall  dis- 
credit from  the  total  received  not 
to  exceed  eight  points  .... 

Discredit,  vs  1,  s  2,  m  3,  vm  5,  e  8. 

For  deficiency  Inspectors  shall  dis- 
credit from  the  total  received  not 
to  exceed  eight  points  .... 

Discredit,  vs  1,  s  2,  m  3,  vm  5,  e  8. 

A  bull  shall  be  credited  one  point  in 
excess  of  what  he  is  otherwise  en- 
titled to,  for  each  and  every  animal 
of  which  he  is  sire  actually  entered 
in  the  Advanced  Register,  not  to 
exceed  ten  in  number  .... 


POSSIBLE     Dis- 

SCORE       C.IEDIT8 


364 


APPENDIX 


PARTS 

DESCRIPTION 

POSSIBLE 
SCORE 

DIS- 
CREDITS 

t 

*  In  scaling  for  the  Advanced  Reg- 
ister, defects  caused  solely  by  age, 
or  by  accident,  or  by  disease  not 
hereditary,  shall  not  be  considered. 
But  in  scaling  for  the  show-ring, 
such  defects  shall  be  considered  and 
duly  discredited 

*A  bull  that  in  the  judgment  of  the 
Inspector  will  not  reach,  at  full  age 
and  in  good  flesh,  1800  lb.,  live 
weight,  shall  be  disqualified  for 
entry  in  the  Advanced  Register  . 

*  No  bull  shall  be  received  to  the 
Advanced  Register  that,  with  all 
credits  due  him,  will  not  scale,  in  the 
judgment  of  the  Inspector,  at  least 
80  points.  (See  amendment  to  Rule 
IV,  an  exception  to  these  require- 
ments.) 

Perfection       .     .     . 
Total  discredit    .... 

100 

Net  score        

*  Not  now  in  use  by  Advanced  Register,  but  of  great  value  as  an  aid  in  judging 
cattle. 

JUDGE 

AYRSHIRE  CATTLE  —  SCALE  OF  POINTS,  ADOPTED  1906 
Cow 


Head 

Forehead  —  broad  and  clearly  defined  .  .  1 
Horns  —  wide  set  on  and  inclining  upward  .  1 
Face  —  of  medium  length,  slightly  dished  ; 

clean  cut,  showing  veins 2 

Muzzle  —  broad  and  strong  without  coarse- 
ness, nostrils  large 1 


10 


APPENDIX  365 

Jaws  —  wide  at  the  base  and  strong      .     .     .1  

Eyes  —  full  and  bright  with  placid  expression  3  

Ears  —  of  medium  size  and  fine,  carried  alert  1  

Neck  —  fine   throughout,   throat   clean,   neatly 

joined    to    head    and    shoulders,    of   good 

length,  moderately  thin,  nearly  free  from 

loose  skin,  elegant  in  bearing 3     

Forequarters 10 

Shoulders  —  light,    good     distance     through 

from  point  to  point  but  sharp  at  withers, 

smoothly  blending  into  body 2  

Chest  —  low,  deep  and  full  between  back  and 

forelegs 8  

Brisket  —  light 1  

Legs  and  feet  —  legs  straight  and  short,  well 

apart,  shanks  fine  and  smooth,  joints  firm ; 

feet  medium  size,  round,  solid  and  deep  .     .1  

Body        13 

Back  —  strong  and  straight,  chine  lean,  sharp 

and  open-jointed 4  

Loin  —  broad,  strong  and  level 2  

Ribs  —  long,    broad,    wide    apart    and    well 

sprung        3  

Abdomen  —  capacious,  deep,  firmly  held  up 

with  strong  muscular  development     .     .     .3  

Flank  —  thin  and  arching        1  

Hindquarters 11 

Rump  —  wide,  level,  long  from  hooks  to  pin 

bones,  a  reasonable  pelvic  arch  allowed    .     .3  

Hooks  —  wide  apart  and  not  projecting  above 

back  nor  unduly  overlaid  with  fat      .     .     .2  

Pin  bones  —  high,  wide  apart 1  

Thighs  —  thin,  long  and  wide  apart      .     .     .2  

Tail  —  fine,  long  and  set  on  level  with  back   .1  

Legs  and  feet  —  legs  strong,  short,  straight, 

when  viewed   from   behind,  and   set   well 

apart ;   shanks  fine  and  smooth,  joints  firm, 

feet  medium  size,  round,   solid  and  deep  2  "  

Udder  —  Long,   wide,  deep  but  not  pendulous 

nor  fleshy ;    firmly  attached  to  the  body, 

extending  well  up  behind  and  far  forward ; 

quarters  even ;    sole  nearly  level  and  not 

indented  between  teats,  udder  veins  well 

developed  and  plainly  visible 22     


36G  APPENDIX 

Teats  —  evenly  placed,  distance  apart  from  side 
to  side  equal  to  half  the  breadth  of  udder, 
from  back  to  front  equal  to  one  third  the 
length ;  length  2£  to  3|  inches,  thickness  in 
keeping  with  length,  hanging  perpendicular 
and  not  tapering 8 

Mammary  Veins  —  large,  long,  tortuous,  branch- 
ing and  entering  large  orifices 5 

Escutcheon  —  distinctly  defined,  spreading  over 

thighs  and  extending  well  upward        ...          2 

Color  —  red  of  any  shade,  brown,  or  these  with 
white ;  mahogany  and  white,  or  white ; 
each  color  distinctly  defined.  [Brindle 
markings  allowed  but  not  desirable]  .  .  2 

Covering        6 

Skin  —  medium  thickness,  mellow  and  elastic  3 

Hair  —  soft  and  fine        2 

Secretions  —  Oily,   of  rich  brown  or  yellow 
color 1 

Style  —  alert,  vigorous,  showing  strong  char- 
acter; temperament  inclined  to  nervous- 
ness but  still  docile 4 

Weight  —  at  maturity  not  less  than  one  thou- 
sand pounds  4 

Total  100 


Bull 

Head 16 

Forehead  —  broad  and  clearly  defined  ...  2 
Horn  —  strong  at  base,  set  wide  apart,  in- 
clining upward        1 

Face  —  of  medium  length,  clean  cut,  showing 

facial  veins 2 

Muzzle  —  broad  and  strong  without  coarse- 
ness        1 

Nostrils  —  large  and  open        2 

Jaws  —  wide  at  the  base  and  strong      ...  1 
Eyes  —  moderately  large,  full  and  bright       .  3 
Ears  —  of  medium  size  and  fine,  carried  alert  1 
Expression  —  full  of  vigor,  resolute  and  mas- 
culine  ...  3 


APPENDIX  367 

Neck 10 

Of  medium  length,  somewhat  arched,  large 

and  strong  in  the  muscles  on  top,  inclined 

to  flatness  on  sides,  enlarging  symmetrically 

toward  the  shoulders,  throat  clean  and  free 

from  loose  skin        >.     .  

Forequarters 15     

Shoulders  —  strong,  smoothly  blending  into 

body   with   good    distance    through   from 

point  to  point  and  fine  on  top       .     .     .     .3  

Chest  —  low,  deep  and  full  between  back  and 

forelegs " 8  

Brisket  —  deep,  not  too  prominent  and  with 

very  little  dewlap        2  

Legs  and  feet  —  legs  well  apart,  straight  and 

short,  shanks  fine  and  smooth,  joints  firm, 

feet  of  medium  size,  round,  solid  and  deep  2  

Body        18 

Back  —  short  and    straight,    chine    strongly 

developed  and  open  jointed 5  

Loin  —  broad,  strong  and  level        .     .     /    .  4  

Ribs  —  long,  broad,  strong,  well  sprung  and 

wide  apart 4  

Abdomen  —  large  and  deep,  trimly  held  up, 

with  muscular  development 4  

Flank  —  thin  and  arching        1  

Hindquarters 16 

Rump  —  level,  long  from  hooks  to  pin  bones  5  

Hooks  —  medium  distance  apart,  proportion- 
ately narrower  than  in  female,  not  rising 

above  the  level  of  the  back 2  

Pin  bones  —  high,  wide  apart 2  

Thighs  —  thin,  long  and  wide  apart      .     .     .4  

Tail  —  fine,  long  and  set  on  level  with  back     1  

Legs  and  feet  —  legs  straight,  set  well  apart, 

shanks  fine  and  smooth,  feet  medium  size, 

round,  solid  and  deep,  not  to  cross  in  walk-  

ing 2  

Scrotum  —  well  developed  and  strongly  carried  3      ....'.. 

Rudimentaries,  Veins,  etc. — Teats  of  uniform  size, 

squarely  placed,  wide  apart  and  free  from 

scrotum ;  veins  long,  large,  tortuous,  with 

extensions  entering  large  orifices ;  escutch- 
eon pronounced  and  covering  a  surface  .     .  4     


368  APPENDIX 

Color  —  red  of  any  shade,  brown,  or  these  with 
white ;     mahogany   and   white,   or  white ; 

each  color  distinctly  denned 3     

Covering 6      

Skin  —  medium  thickness,  mellow  and  elastic  3  

Hair  —  soft  and  fine 2  

Secretions  —  oily,  of  rich  brown  or  yellow  color  1  

Style  —  active,  vigorous,  showing  strong  mas- 
culine character,  temperament  inclined  to 

nervousness  but  not  irritable  or  vicious  5     

Weight  —  at  maturity  not  less  than  1500  pounds  4     

Total 100     ...... 

BROWN  Swiss  CATTLE  —  SCALE  OF  POINTS 

Cow  and  Heifer 

No.  OP 
No.  POINTS 

1  Head,  medium  size  and  rather  long 2 

2  Face,  dished,  narrow  between  horns  and  wide  between 

eyes 2 

3  Ears,  large,  fringed  inside  with  light-colored  hair,  skin 

inside  of  ear  a  deep  orange  color        2 

4  Nose,  black,  large  and  square  with  mouth  surrounded 

by  mealy-colored  band,  tongue  black 2 

5  Eyes,  moderately  large,  full  and  bright 2 

6  Horns,  short,  regularly  set  with  black  tips  .  '  2 

7  Neck,  straight,  throat  clean,  neatly  joined  to  head, 

shoulders,  of  good  length,  moderately  thin  at  the 

withers 4 

8  Chest,  low,  deep  and  full  between  and  back  of  forelegs  6 

9  Back,  level  to  setting  of  tail  and  broad  across  the  loin  6 

10  Ribs,  long  and  broad,  wide  apart  and  well  sprung,  with 

thin,  arching  flanks 3 

11  Abdomen,  large  and  deep 5 

12  Hips,  wide  apart,  rump  long  arid  broad 4 

13  Thighs,  wide,  quarters  not  thin 4 

14  Legs,  short  and  straight  with  good  hoofs        ....  2 

15  Tail,  slender,  well  set  on,  with  good  switch     ....  2 

16  Hide  of  medium  thickness,  mellow  and  elastic     ...  3 

17  Color  —  shades  from  dark  to  light  brown,  at  some 

seasons  of  the  year  gray ;  white  splashes  near  udder 
not  objectionable,  light  stripe  along  back.  White 
splashes  on  body  or  sides  objectionable.  Hair 
between  horns  usually  lighter  shade  than  body  .  .  4 


APPENDIX  369 

No.  OP 
No.  POINTS 

18  Fore  udder,  wide,  deep,  well  rounded  but  not  pendu- 

lous,   nor    fleshy,    extending   far    forward    on    the 

abdomen        ..............  12 

19  Rear  udder,  wide,  deep,  but  not  pendulous,  nor  fleshy, 

extending  well  up  behind      .........  12 

20  Teats,  rather  large,  set  well  apart  and  hanging  straight  8 

21  Milk,  veins  large,  long,  tortuous,  elastic  and  entering 

good  wells      ..............  6 

22  Disposition  quiet   .........     ....  2 

23  Size,  evidence  of  constitution,  and  stamina    ....  5 


Bull 

1  Head,  same  as  cow     ......     ..'....  2 

2  Face,  same  as  cow      ..........    l.     .  2 

3  Expression,  full  of  vigor,  resolution  and  masculinity    .  3 

4  Ears,  same  as  cow     ............  2 

5  Nose,  same  as  cow     .     .  -  „    .....   ".     .     .     .  2 
.6     Eyes,  same  as  cow     .....     .......  2 

7  Horns,  same  as  cow    ............  2 

8  Neck,  of  medium  length,  somewhat  arched,  large  and 

strong  in  muscles  on  top,  sloping  symmetrically  to 
shoulders.     Shoulders  large  and    strong,    smoothly 

blending  into  body      .     .     ....     *     .....  10 

9  Chest,  same  as  cow    ......     ......  10 

10  Back,  same  as  cow     .....     .......  10 

11  Ribs  and  abdomen,  same  as  cow       .......  10 

12  Hips,  same  as  cow      .....     .......  6 

13  Thighs,  same  as  cow       ...     ........  6 

14  Legs,  same  as  cow      .     ...........  2 

15.    Tail,  same  as  cow      ,.     .     ..........  2 

16  Hide,  same  as  cow      ............  3 

17  Color,  same  as  cow     ............  4 

18  Scrotum,  well  developed  and  strongly  carried     ...  3 

19  Rudimentary  teats,  squarely  placed,  wide  apart  and  free 

from  the  scrotum    ............  6 

20  Milk  veins,  same  as  cow      ..........  6 

21  Disposition  quiet         ............  3 

22  Size,  evidence  of  constitution  and  stamina     ....  4 

100 

Dark,  smoky  skins  very  objectionable. 
2n 


370  APPENDIX 

DUTCH  BELTED  CATTLE  —  SCALE  OF  POINTS 

Cow 

PERFECT 
SCORE 

1.  Body.  —  Color  black,  with  a  clearly  defined   con- 

tinuous white  belt,  the  belt  to  be  of  medium  width, 
beginning  behind  the  shoulders  and  extending 
nearly  to  the  hips 8 

2.  Head.  —  Comparatively  long  and  somewhat  dish- 

ing ;  broad  between  the  eyes ;  poll,  prominent ; 
muzzle,  fine ;  tongue,  dark 6 

3.  Eyes.  —  Black,  full  and  mild.     Horns.  —  Long  com- 

pared with  their  diameter 4 

4.  Neck.  —  Fine,  and  moderately  thin,  and  should  har- 

monize in  symmetry  with  the  head  and  shoulders  6 

5.  Shoulders.  —  Fine  at  the  top,  becoming  deep  and 

broad  as  they  extend  backward  and  downward, 

with  a  low  chest 4 

6.  Barrel.  —  Large  and  deep  with  well-developed  ab- 

domen ;  ribs  well  rounded  and  free  from  fat     .     .  10 

7.  Hips.  —  Broad ;   chine  level,  with  full  loin      ...  10 

8.  Rump.  —  High,  long  and  broad 6 

9.  Hindquarters.  —  Long  and  deep,  rear  line  incurving. 
Tail.  —  Long,  slim,  tapering  to  a  full  switch     ...  8 

10.  Legs.  —  Short,  clean,  standing  well  apart  ....          3 

11.  Udder.  —  Large,  well  developed  front  and  rear,  teats 

of  convenient  size  and  wide  apart ;  mammary 
veins  large,  long  and  crooked,  entering  large 
orifices 20 

12.  Escutcheon 2 

13.  Hair.  —  Fine  and  soft ;  skin  of  moderate  thickness, 

of  a  rich  dark  or  yellow  color 3 

14.  Quiet  disposition  and  free  from  excessive  fat       .     .          4 

15.  General  condition  and  apparent  constitution       .     .          6 

Perfection  .  100 


Bull 

The  scale  of  points  for  males  shall  be  the  same  as  that 
given  for  females,  except  that  No.  .11  shall  be 
omitted  and  the  bull  shall  be  credited  10  points  for 
size  and  widespread  placing  of  rudimentary  teats, 
and  10  additional  points  for  perfection  of  belt. 


APPENDIX 


371 


KERRY  CATTLE  —  SCALE  OF  POINTS 
Cow 

General  formation  and  character,  head,  horns  and 

hair  ..............  ,  .  30  points 

Udder,  size,  shape,  situation  of  teats,  milk  veins  and 

escutcheon,  etc  ............  40  points 

Quality  and  touch       ...........  20  points 

Color    ................  20  points 

Perfect    .............  100  points 

Bull 

General  formation  and  character       .     .     .     7    .     .  25  points 

Head,  horns  and  hair  .     .     .     ...     ....     .     .  25  points 

Quality  and  touch       ...........  20  points 

Color    ............     .     .     .     .  30  points 

Perfect    ......  •  •'.•••     •    •     •     •  100  points 


DEXTER  Cow 

Head,  neck  and  horns      .......... 

Body,  top  line,  under  line,  ribs,  setting  on  of  tail, 
shortness  of  leg,  etc  .......... 

Bag       ........     ...     ..... 

Quality  and  touch       ........... 

Color    .....     .     .     .     .     ...     .     .'.    .     . 


Perfect 


15  points 

25  points 
40  points 
10  points 
10  points 

100  points 


DEXTER  BULL 


General  formation  and  character 
Head,  horns  and  hair       ,     .     . 
Quality  and  touch 
Color    ...... 


25  points 
25  points 
20  points 
30  points 


Perfect     ..........     ...     100  points 


372  APPENDIX 

DEVON  CATTLE  — SCALE  OF  POINTS 

Cow 

COUNT 

Head,  moderately  long,  with  a  broad  indented  forehead, 
tapering  considerably  towards  the  nostrils ;  the  nose  of 
a  flesh  color,  nostrils  high  and  open,  the  jaws  clean,  the 
eye  bright,  lively  and  prominent,  and  surrounded  by  a 
flesh-colored  ring,  throat  clean,  ears  thin,  the  expression 
gentle  and  intelligent ;  horns  matching ;  spreading  and 
gracefully  turned  up,  of  a  waxy  color,  tipped  with  a 
darker  shade .  8 

Neck,  upper  line  short,  fine  at  head,  widening  and  deep  at 
withers  and  strongly  set  to  the  shoulders 4 

Shoulders,  fine,  flat  and  sloping,  with  strong  arms  and  firm 
joints 4 

Chest,  deep,  broad,  and  somewhat  circular  in  character     .         8 

Ribs,  well  sprung  from  the  backbone,  nicely  arched,  deep, 
with  flanks  fully  developed  8 

Back,  straight  and  level  from  the  withers  to  the  setting  on 
of  the  tail,  loin  broad  and  full,  hips  and  rump  of  medium 
width,  and  on  a  level  with  the  back 16 

Hindquarters,  deep,  thick  and  square 8 

Udder,  not  fleshy,  coming  well  forward  in  line  with  the 
belly  and  well  up  behind ;  teats  moderately  large,  and 
squarely  placed  % 20 

Tail,  well  set  on  at  a  right  angle  with  the  back,  tapering, 
with  a  switch  of  white  or  roan  hair  and  reaching  the 
hocks 2 

Legs,  straight,  squarely  placed  when  viewed  from  behind, 
not  to  cross  or  sweep  in  walking,  hoof  well  formed  .  .  4 

Skin,  moderately  thick  and  mellow,  covered  with  an 
abundant  coat  of  rich  hair  of  a  red  color ;  no  white  spot 
admissible,  except  the  udder 8 

Size,  minimum  weight  at  3  years  old,  1000  pounds    ...        2 

General  Appearance,  as  indicated  by  stylish  and  quick 
movement,  form,  constitution  and  vigor,  and  the  under 
line  as  nearlv  as  possible  parallel  with  the  line  of  the 
back 8 

Perfection  is    .  .100 


APPENDIX  373 

Bull 

COUNT 

Head,  masculine,  full  and  broad,  tapering  toward  the  nose, 
which  should  be  flesh-colored ;  nostrils  high  and  open, 
muzzle  broad,  eyes  full  and  placid  and  surrounded  with 
flesh-colored  ring,  ears  of  medium  size  and  thickness, 
horns  medium  size,  growing  at  right  angles  from  the 
head,  or  slightly  elevated,  waxy  at  the  base,  tipped  with 

a  darker  shade 10 

Cheek,  full  and  broad  at  root  of  tongue.     Throat  clean     .         2 
Neck,  of  medium  length  and  muscular,  widening  from  the 

head  to  the  shoulders,  and  strongly  set  on 4 

Shoulders,  fine,  flat,  sloping  and  well  fleshed,  arms  strong 

with  firm  joints        6 

Chest,  deep,  broad  and  somewhat  circular 10 

Ribs,  well  sprung  from  the  backbone,  nicely  arched,  deep 

with  flanks  fully  developed        10 

Back,  straight  and  level  from  the  withers  to  the  setting 
on  of  the  tail,  loin  broad  and  full,  hips  and  rump  of 
medium  width  and  on  a  level  with  the  back  ....  20 

Hindquarters,  deep,  thick  and  square 12 

Tail,  well  set  on  at  a  right  angle  with  the  back,  tapering, 
with  a  switch  of  white  or  roan  hair  and  reaching  the 

hocks 2 

Legs,  short,  straight  and  squarely  placed  when  viewed 
from  behind,  not  to  cross  or  sweep  in  walking,  hoof  well 

formed 4 

Skin,  moderately  thick  and  mellow,  covered  with  an 
abundant  coat  of  rich  hair  of  a  red  color ;  no  white  spot 

admissible  unless  around  the  purse 8 

Size,  minimum  weight  at  3  years  old  1400  pounds    ...        4 
General  Appearance,  as  indicated  by  stylish  and  quick 
movement,  form,  constitution,  and  vigor,  and  the  under 
line  as  nearly  as  possible  parallel  with  the  line  of  the 
back : 8 

Perfection  is 100 


374  APPENDIX 

RED-POLLED  CATTLE  — SCALE  OF  POINTS 

Cow 

DISQUALIFICATIONS.  —  Scurs,  or  any  evidence  whatever  of  a 
horny  growth  on  the  head.  Any  white  spots  on  body  above 
lower  line  or  brush  of  tail. 

SCORE 

1.  Color.  —  Any  shade  of  red.     The  switch  of  tail  and 

udder  may  be  white,  with  some  white  running 
forward  to  the  navel.  Nose  of  a  clear  flesh  color. 
Interior  of  ears  should  be  of  a  yellowish,  waxy  color.  2 

Objections  :  An  extreme  dark  or  an  extreme  light 
red  is  not  desirable.  A  cloudy  nose  or  one  with  dark 
spots. 

2.  Head.  —  Of  medium  length,  wide  between  the  eyes, 

sloping  gradually  from  above  eyes  to  poll.  The  poll 
well  denned  and  prominent,  with  a  sharp  dip  behind 
it  in  center  of  head.  Ears  of  medium  size  and  well 
carried.  Eyes  prominent ;  face  well  dished  be- 
tween the  eyes.  Muzzle  wide,  with  large  nostrils  6 

Objections  :  A  rounding  or  flat  appearance  of  the 
poll.  Head  too  long  and  narrow. 

3.  Neck.  —  Of  medium  length,  clean  cut,  and  straight 

from  head  to  top  of  shoulder  with  inclination  to 
arch  when  fattened,  and  may  show  folds  of  loose 
skin  underneath  when  in  milking  form  ....  3 

4.  Shoulder.  —  Of  medium  thickness  and  smoothly  laid, 

coming  up  level  with  line  of  back 6 

Objections  :  Shoulder  too  prominent,  giving  the 
appearance  of  weakness  in  heart  girth ;  shoulder 
protruding  above  line  of  back. 

5.  Chest.  —  Broad    and    deep,    insuring    constitution. 

Brisket  prominent  and  coming  well  forward       .     .       10 

6.  Back  and  ribs.  —  Back  medium  long,  straight  and 

level  from  withers  to  setting  on  of  tail,  moderately 
wide,  with  spring  of  ribs  starting  from  the  back- 
bone, giving  a  rounding  appearance,  with  ribs  flat 

and  fairly  wide  apart 14 

Objections :  Front  ribs  too  straight,  causing  de- 
pression back  of  shoulders.  Drop  in  back  or  loin 
below  the  top  line. 

7.  Hips.  —  Wide,  rounding  over  the  hooks,  and  well 

covered 3 

8.  Quarters.  —  Of  good  length,  full,  rounding  and  level  ; 

thighs  wide,  roomy  and  not  too  meaty      ....        6 


APPENDIX  375 

PERFECT 
SCORE 

Objections :     Prominent     hooks     and     sunken 
quarters. 
9.    Tail.  —  Tail  head  strong  and  setting  well  forward, 

long  and  tapering  to  a  full  switch 2 

10.  Legs. — Short,  straight,  squarely  placed,  medium  bone         3 

Objections  :  Hocks  crooked  ;  legs  placed  too  close 
together. 

11.  Fore  udder.  —  Full  and   flexible,   reaching  well  for- 

ward, extending  down  level  with  hind  udder     .     .       10 

12.  Hind  udder.  —  Full  and  well  up  behind 10 

13.  Teats.  —  Well  placed,  wide  apart  and  of  reasonably 

good  size 4 

Objections :  Lack  of  development,  especially 
in  forward  udder.  Udder  too  deep,  "bottle 
shaped "  and  teats  too  close  together.  Teats 
unevenly  placed  and  either  too  large  or  too  small. 

14.  Milk  veins.  —  Of  medium  size,  full,  flexible,  extending 

well  forward,  well  retained  within  the  body ;  milk 
wells  of  medium  size 6 

15.  Hide.  —  Loose,  mellow,  flexible,  inclined  to  thickness, 

with  a  good  full  coat  of  soft  hair 5 

Objections  :   Thin,  papery  skin  or  wiry  hair. 

16.  Condition.  —  Healthy ;      moderate    to    liberal    flesh 

evenly  laid  on ;    glossy  coat ;    animal  presented  in 

good  bloom 10 

Perfection 100 

Bull 

DISQUALIFICATIONS.  —  Scurs,  or  any  evidence  whatever  of  a 
horny  growth  on  the  head.  Any  white  spots  on  body  above 
lower  line  or  brush  of  tail. 

1.  Color.  —  Any  shade  of  red.     The  switch  of  tail  may  be 

white,  with  some  white  running  forward  to  the 
navel.  Nose  of  a  clear  flesh  color.  Interior  of 
ears  should  be  of  a  yellowish,  waxy  color  ....  2 

Objections  :  An  extreme  dark  or  an  extreme  light 
red  is  not  desirable.  A  cloudy  nose  or  one  with 
dark  spots. 

2.  Head.  —  Wide,  strong  and  masculine,  relatively  short. 

Poll  stronger  and  less  prominent  than  in  cow. 
Ears  of  medium  size  and  well  carried ;  eyes  promi- 
nent ;  muzzle  wide  with  large  nostrils  ....  12 


376  APPENDIX 

PERFECT 
SCORE 

Objections :  Long,  narrow,  or  lacking  in  mascu- 
line character  .  .  .  .  , 

3.  Neck.  —  Of  medium  length,  full  crest,  of  good  thick- 

ness, strong,  of  masculine  appearance 5 

4.  Shoulder.  —  Of  medium  thickness  and  smoothly  laid, 

coming  up  level  with  line  of  back 8 

Objections :  Shoulder  too  prominent,  giving  the 
appearance  of  weakness  in  heart  girth ;  shoulder 
protruding  above  line  of  back. 

5.  Chest.  —  Broad    and    deep,    insuring    constitution. 

Brisket  prominent  and  coming  well  forward      .     .       12 

6.  Back  and  ribs.  —  Back  medium  long,   straight  and 

level  from  withers  to  setting  on  of  tail,  moderately 
wide,  with  spring  of  ribs  starting  from  the  back- 
bone, giving  a  rounding  appearance,  with  ribs  flat 

and  fairly  wide  apart 14 

Objection :  Front  ribs  too  straight,  causing  de- 
pression back  of  shoulders.  Drop  in  back  or  loin 
below  the  top  line. 

7.  Hips.  —  Wide,  rounding  over  the  hooks,  and  well 

covered 3 

8.  Quarters.  —  Of  good  length,  full,  rounding  and  level ; 

thighs  wide  and  moderately  full,  deep 6 

Objections  :   Prominent  hooks,  sunken  quarters. 

9.  Tail.  —  Tail  head  strong  and  setting  well  forward, 

long  and  tapering  to  a  full  switch 2 

10.  Legs.  —  Short,  straight,  squarely  placed,  medium  bone         3 

Objection  :  Hocks  crooked  ;  legs  placed  too  close 
together. 

11.  Rudimentaries.  —  Large,  wide  apart,  and  placed  well 

forward         12 

Position  of  rudimentaries 6 

Objections :  Rudimentaries  placed  back  on 
scrotum,  or  placed  too  close  together,  indicating 
tendency  to  transmit  badly  formed  udders. 

12.  Hide.  —  Loose,  mellow,  flexible,  inclined  to  thickness, 

with  good  full  coat  of  soft  hair 5 

Objections  :   Thin,  papery  skin  or  wiry  hair. 

13.  Condition.  —  Healthy ;      moderate    to    liberal    flesh 

evenly  laid  on ;  glossy  coat ;  animal  presented  in 
good  bloom 10 

Perfection  .     100 


APPENDIX  377 

SOUTHDOWN  SHEEP  —  STANDARD  OF  EXCELLENCE 

PERFECT 
SCORE 

Head.  —  Medium  in  size  and  hornless,  fine,  carried  well  up, 
the  forehead  or  face  well  covered  with  wool,  especially 
between  the  ears  and  on  the  cheeks,  and  in  the  ewe 
slightly  dished 5 

Lips  and  Under  Jaw.  —  Fine  and  thin 1 

Ears.  —  Rather  small,  tolerably  wide  apart,  covered  with 
fine  hair,  and  carried  with  a  lively  back  and  forth  move- 
ment    2 

Eyes.  —  Full  and  bright 3 

Face.  —  A  uniform  tint  of  brown,  or  gray,  or  mouse  color  .         3 

Neck.  —  Short,  fine  at  the  head,  but  nicely  tapering,  and 

broad  and  straight  on  top  at  the  shoulders  ....  4 

Shoulders.  —  Broad  and  full,  smoothly  joining  the  neck  with 

the  back 5 

Breast.  —  Wide,  deep  and  projecting  well  forward,  the  fore- 
legs standing  wide  apart 5 

Back  and  Loin.  —  Broad  and  straight  from  shoulders  to  rump         7 

Ribs.  —  Well  arched,  extending  far  backward,  the  last  pro- 
jecting more  than  the  others 6 

Rump.  —  Broad,  square  and  full,  with  tail  well  set  up    .     .         6 

Hips.  —  Wide,  with  little  space  between  them  and  last  ribs         6 

Thighs.  —  Full  and  well  let  down  in  twist,  the  legs  standing 

well  apart 6 

Limbs.  —  Short  and  fine  in  bone,  and  in  color  to  agree  with 

the  face 3 

Forelegs.  —  Well  wooled  and  carrying  mutton  to  the  knees, 

but  free  from  meat  below 2 

Hind  Legs.  —  Well  filled  with  mutton  and  wooled  to  the 

hocks,  neat  and  clean  below 2 

Belly.  —  Straight  and  covered  with  wool,  the  flank  ex- 
•  tending  so  as  to  form  a  line  parallel  with  the  back  or 
top  line 5 

Fleece.  —  Compact,  the  whole  body  well  covered  with  mod- 
erately long  and  close  wool  white  in  color,  carrying 
some  yolk 12 

Form.  —  Throughout  smooth  and  symmetrical,  with  no 

coarseness  in  any  part '  9 

General  Appearance.  —  Spirited  and  attractive,  with  a 
determined  look,  a  proud  and  firm  step,  indicating  con- 
stitutional vigor  and  thorough  breeding 8 

loo 


378  APPENDIX 

SHROPSHIRE  SHEEP  —  SCALE  OF  POINTS 
1.   Type  and  General  Appearance 

An  alert,  attractive,  and  stylish  appearance,  showing  at  a  glance 
the  true  characteristics  of  the  Shropshire.  30  Points. 

2.   Form  and  Constitution 

Head.  —  To  impress  at  once  the  Shropshire  characteristics. 
Heads  of  Rams.  —  To   be  masculine    as  indicated  by   a    broad 

nostril,  short,  broad  between  ears  and  eyes. 
Neck.  —  Short  and  muscular,  fitting  into  shoulders  in  graceful 

outlines. 
Heads  of  Ewes.  —  To  be  feminine  in  appearance,  medium  in 

length,  but  not  delicate. 
Neck.  —  Not  so  strong  as  in  the  ram. 

In  all  cases  head  and  face  nicely  covered  with  wool ;    ears, 

short  and  erect ;    eyes,  bright ;    color  of  face,  brown  to  a 

clear  dark  (not  sooty)  black. 
Body.  —  Well  proportioned,  with  shoulders  so  placed  as  to  fit 

in  evenly  to  a  deep  wide  brisket.     A  full  heart-girth  ;  broad, 

level  back ;   ribs  well  sprung,  with  straight  under  line ;   loins 

thick-fleshed ;    fore  and  hind  flank  deep ;    a  low  coupled 

twist,  and  full  leg  of  mutton. 
Legs.  —  Brown  to  clear  dark  color  (not  sooty  black),  well  set 

apart,  short  and  straight  with  strong  upright  pasterns. 
Size.  —  When  fully  matured  and  in  proper  breeding  condition, 

rams  should  weigh  not  less  than  175  to  250  pounds  and  ewes 

not  less  than  140  to  180  pounds. 

35  Points. 
3.   Fleshing 

While  the  body  should  be  well  formed,  with  the  full  outline 
pleasing  to  the  eye,  yet  it  is  the  quality  and  quantity  of  flesh, 
not  fat,  which  gives  value  to  the  carcass.  Therefore  the 
parts  furnishing  the  high-priced  cuts  should  be  fully  de- 
veloped. 

The  back,  loins  and  legs  should  be  so  fleshed  as  to  show  a  large 
percentage  of  flesh  compared  with  the  other  parts  of  the 
body  ;  at  the  same  time  symmetry  must  prevail  throughout. 

Strong  bone  in  legs  conformable  with  size  of  body  usually  goes 
with  a  large  proportion  of  lean  meat  to  fat  in  the  finished 
carcass. 

25  Points. 


APPENDIX  379 


4.    Fleece  and  Skin 

Fleece  of  good  length,  elastic  to  the  touch,  medium  fine  and 
slightly  crimped,  free  from  black  fiber  and  hairiness.  Ram's 
scrotum  to  be  well  covered  with  wool. 

Rams  should  shear  8  to  15  pounds  of  wool  and  ewes  7  to  11. 
Skin  to  be  a  bright  cherry  or  clear  color  and  comparatively  free 
from  dark  spots. 

10  Points. 
Objections 

Long  narrow  head  with  long  ears  and  neck;  long  legs;  black 
wool  on  head  to  any  noticeable  extent ;  failure  of  wool  to 
meet  closely  at  the  junction  of  face-wool  and  on  cheeks ; 
white  spots  on  face  and  legs ;  crooked  spine ;  light  flanks, 
with  long,  weak  pasterns ;  spotted  skin ;  narrow  chest 
showing  lack  of  constitution. 

Disqualification  for  Registry 

Such  lack  of  type  as  to  render  it  doubtful  to  a  breeder  what  the 
breed  is ;  Horns  or  Stubs,  not  Scurs.  Heads  quite  bare  of 
wool. 


DOWN  SHEEP  —  SCALE  OF  POINTS 

PERFECT 
SCORE 

Form.  —  Of  good  general  appearance,  made  by  a  well- 
balanced  conformation,  free  from  coarseness  in 
any  part  and  showing  good  style  at  rest  and  in 
motion 15 

Head.  —  Of  moderate  length  and  width  between  the 
ears  and  between  the  eyes,  and  well  covered  with 

•  wool  over  the  poll  and  down  to  the  eyes.  Color  of 
face  an  even  dark  gray  or  brown,  with  or  without 
gray  spots  on  the  nose  6 

Weight.  —  When  fully  matured  and  in  good  condition, 
rams  should  weigh  250  to  350  pounds ;  ewes  180  to 
275 5 

Ears.  —  Medium  size,  not  too  thick  and  of  an  even 
brown  or  dark  gray  color  2 

Legs.  —  Short,  strong  in  bone,  flat  and  even,  brown  or 
dark  gray  color,  placed  squarely  under  the  body 
and  well  apart 2 


380  APPENDIX 

PERFECT 
SCORE 

6.  Girth.  —  Large  around  the  heart  and  wide  and  full  in 

the  chest 10 

7.  The  Movement  must  be  bold  and  vigorous    ....  5 

8.  Eyes.  —  Bold,  prominent  and  bright 4 

9.  Skin.  —  Bright  pink  in  color 3 

10.  Neck.  —  Strong  and  muscular  in  rams,  and  well  set  on 

in  both  sexes 3 

11.  Back.  —  Wide  and  straight  on  top  of  shoulders  and 

back,  loin  and  rump,  from  base  of  neck  to  tail   .     .       15 

12.  Full  Shoulders  and  Thighs.  —  Well  meated  inside  and 

out 5 

13.  Flanks.  —  Well  filled  and  strong,  so  as  to  make  the 

lower  line  of  the  body  as  straight  as  possible  and 
side  lines  straight  or  rather  full      ......        4 

14.  The  Whole  Carcass  evenly  covered  with  good,  well- 

marbled  meat        6 

15.  Fleece.  —  Of   moderate   length,    close   and   of   even 

quality,  covering  the  whole  carcass  well,  and  free 
from  black  patches  on  the  body,  neck  or  head    .     .       15 

Perfection  .     100 


HAMPSHIRE  SHEEP  —  STANDARD  OF  EXCELLENCE 
Head  and  Legs 

Head.  —  Moderately  large,  but  not  coarse ;    well  covered  with 

wool  on  forehead  and  cheeks. 
Nostrils.  —  Wide. 

Color  (head  and  legs).  —  Dark  brown  or  black. 
Eyes.  —  Prominent  and  lustrous. 
Ears.  —  Moderately  long  and  thin,  and  dark  brown  or  black 

color. 
Legs  —  Well  under  outside  of  body,  straight,  with  good  size  of 

bone,  black. 

Neck,  Shoulders  and  Chest 

Neck.  —  A  regular  taper  from  shoulders  to  head,  without  any 
hollow  in  front  of  shoulders,  set  high  up  on  body. 

Shoulders.  —  Sloping,  full,  and  not  higher  than  the  line  of  back 
and  neck. 

Chest.  —  Deep  and  full  in  the  heart  place,  with  breast  prominent 
and  full. 


APPENDIX  381 

Body 

Back.  —  Straight,  with  full  spring  of  rib. 

Loin.  —  Wide  and  straight,  without  depression  in  front  of  hips. 

Quarters.  —  Long  from  hips  to  rump,  without  sloping,  and  deep 

in  thigh.     Broad  in  hips  and  rump,  with  full  hams.     Inside 

of  thigh  full. 

Scale  of  Points  PERFECT 

SCORE 
Head.  —  Size  and  shape,  5 ;    ears  and  eyes,  3 ;    color,  5 ; 

legs  and  feet,  2 15 

Neck,  Shoulders  and  Breast.  —  Neck,  5 ;    shoulders,    10 ; 

chest  and  breast,  15 30 

Body.  —  Back  and  loins,  15  ;  rib,  5 •.     .       20 

Quarters.  —  Length,  10 ;  width,  10 ;   twist,  5 25 

Wool.  —  Forehead  and  cheeks,  2 ;    belly,  well  covered,  3 ; 

quality,  5 10 

Total 100 

DORSET  SHEEP  —  SCALE  OF  POINTS 

Head.  —  Neat,  face  white,  nostrils  large,  well  covered  on 

crown  and  under  jaws  with  wool 5 

Horns.  —  Small  and  gracefully  curving  forward  rather  close 

to  jaw ' 5 

Eyes.  —  Prominent  and  bright        2 

Ears.  —  Medium  size  covered  with  short  white  hair    ...         2 
Neck.  —  Short,   symmetrical,   strongly   set   on   shoulders, 

gradually  tapering  to  junction  of  head 5 

Shoulders.  —  Broad  and  full,  joining  neck  forward  and  chine 
backward  with  no  depression  at  either  point  (impor- 
tant)   15 

Brisket.  —  Wide  and  full,  forward,  chest  full  and  deep    .     .         8 
Foreflank.  —  Quite  full,  showing  little  depression   behind 

.  shoulder 8 

Back   and  Loin.  —  Wide  and   straight,   from  which  ribs 

should  spring  with  a  fine,  circular  arch 10 

Quarters.  —  Wide  and  full,  mutton  extending  down  to  hocks       10 

Belly.  —  Straight  on  under  line 3 

Fleece.  —  Medium  grade,  of  even  quality,  presenting  a 
smooth  surface  and  extending  over  belly  and  well 

down  on  legs 12 

General  Conformation.  —  Of  the  mutton  type,  body  mod- 
erately long ;  short,  stout  legs,  placed  squarely  under 

body,  skin  pink,  appearance  attractive 15 

Total    .  100 


382  APPENDIX 


CHEVIOT  SHEEP  —  STANDARD  FOR  JUDGING 

General  Conformation  and  Quality.  —  Deep  and  full  breast  and 
large  through  chest.  Back,  wide  and  straight  with  well- 
sprung,  deep  ribs,  legs  well  placed  and  leg  of  mutton  full 
and  thick.  Body  well  fleshed,  skin  pink  with  no  blue  or 
dark  coloring,  fleece  compact  and  medium  fine,  bone  strong 
and  fine,  general  appearance  graceful,  symmetrical,  active  — 
20  points. 

Size.  —  In  good  flesh  when  fully  matured  a  twenty  months'  old 
ram  should  weigh  not  less  than  200  pounds,  and  a  ewe  not 
less  than  130  pounds  —  10  points. 

Head.  —  Should  be  free  from  horns  or  scurs  of  any  length.  It 
should  be  medium  length  and  broad,  with  ample  breadth 
between  the  eyes.  Ears  should  be  of  medium  length  and 
usually  erect  when  at  repose.  Head  covered  with  clean 
white  hairs,  extending  from  nostrils  to  back  of  poll.  Ridge 
of  head  from  between  eyes  to  nostrils  straight  or  slightly 
arched  in  female  and  more  strongly  arched  or  Roman  in 
rams.  Color  of  tip  of  nose  black.  —  15  points. 

Body.  —  Well  proportioned,  having  notable  depth,  with  thick- 
ness on  top  and  at  flanks.  Loins  should  be  very  broad  and 
thick,  shoulders  should  set  well  back  and  be  smoothly 
covered,  and  crops  be  full  and  well  arched.  The  rump 
should  be  long,  broad  and  level.  —  20  points. 

Legs.  —  Should  be  short,  well  set  apart  and  be  covered  with 
clean  white  hair,  with  no  wool  below  hocks  and  knees. 
The  hind  legs  should  be  flat  and  deep  below  hocks.  Pasterns 
should  be  strong  and  not  show  weakness,  supporting  the 
body  well.  —  10  points. 

Feet.  —  Symmetrical,  squarely  placed  when  in  repose  and  hoofs 
black  in  color.  —  5  points. 

Fleece.  —  Should  cover  the  body  completely  to  behind  the  poll 
and  ears  and  down  to  knees  and  hocks.  Under  part  of  the 
body  should  be  well  covered.  In  mature  animals  should  be 
not  less  than  three  inches  long  for  annual  growth  and  be 
compact  and  of  medium  wool  class.  Rams  should  shear 
at  least  12  pounds  and  ewes  8  when  in  mature  form,  to  be 
desirable  representatives  of  the  breed.  —  20  points. 

Objections 

Sours  on  the  head,  flesh-colored  skin  about  the  nostrils,  hair 
about  the  thighs  or  kemp  on  the  body,  reddish  or  sandy  hair  on 
head  or  legs,  lack  of  wool  on  under  part  of  body. 


APPENDIX  383 


Disqualifications 

All  male  lambs  shall  be  ineligible  to  registration,  if  having 
scurs  or  horns  exceeding  one  inch  in  length. 


LEICESTER  SHEEP  —  SCALE  OF  POINTS 

PERFECT 
SCORE 

1.  Head.  —  Long,  moderately  small,  tapering  towards 

the  muzzle;    white  and  well  covered  with  hair; 

lips  and  nostrils  black 6 

2.  Nose.  —  Somewhat  narrow,  almost  straight  in  ewes, 

and  slightly  Roman  in  rams         2 

3.  Face.  —  Having   a   wedge-shaped    appearance,    well 

covered  with  fine  white  hairs       2 

4.  Ears.  —  Thin,  rather  long,  mobile  and  directed  back- 

ward ;  a  black  speck  on  face  and  ears  not  uncommon        2 

5.  Eyes.  —  Large  and  prominent 4 

6.  Neck.  —  Strong  and  moderately  short,  level  with  the 

back  and  broad  at  the  base  where  it  leaves  the  chest, 
gradually  tapering  toward  the  head,  being  fine 
where  head  and  neck  join ;  neck  straight  from 
chest,  showing  a  straight  line  from  rump  to  poll  .  6 

7.  Breast.  —  Deep,  broad  and  full        8 

8.  Shoulders.  —  Upright,  wide  across  the  top,  giving  good 

thickness  through  the  heart 6 

9.  Chest.  —  Well  filled  behind  the  shoulder,  with  large 

girth         6 

10.  Back.  —  Broad  and  well  fleshed,  ribs  well  sprung,  loins 

wide,  hips  level,  quarters  straight  and  long     ...       12 

11.  Barrel.  —  Round,  well-ribbed    home,    straight    lines 

above  and  below 10 

12.  Legs.  —  Of  moderate  length,  fairly  large  and  wide 

apart,  with  strong  flat  bone,  covered  with  white 
hair ;  brown  hair  or  spots  objectionable  ....  6 

13.  Flesh.  —  Firm,  springy  pelt ;  pink  skin 8 

14.  Fleece.  —  Fine,  uniform  and  sound  in  staple,  curly, 

with  good,  bright  luster  and  no  dark  hairs  or  kemp, 
belly  well  covered 10 

15.  Carcass.  —  Rectangular,    legs    well    set    on,    hocks 

straight,  pasterns  good,  with  neat  feet,  good  general 
appearance  12 

Perfection  .     100 


384  APPENDIX 

LINCOLN  SHEEP  — SCALE  OF  POINTS  PERFECT 

SCORE 

1.  Constitution.  —  Body  deep,  back  wide  and  straight, 

wide  and  full  in  the  thigh  ;   bright  large  eyes  ;   skin 
soft  and  pink         25 

2.  Size.  —  Matured  rams  not  less  than  250  pounds,  when 

in  good  condition ;   ewes  200  pounds  or  over     .     .       10 

3.  Appearance.  —  Good  carriage  and  symmetry  of  form       10 

4.  Body.  —  Well  proportioned,  good  bone,  good  length ; 

broad    hindquarters,    legs    standing    wide   apart ; 
breast  wide  and  deep 15 

5.  Head.  —  Covered  with  wool  to  the  ears,  tuft  on  the 

forehead ;   eyes  expressive,  ears  fair  length,  dotted 

or  mottled  in  color 10 

6.  Neck.  —  Medium  length,  good  muscle,  good  shape, 

well  set  on  body         5 

7.  Legs.  —  Broad  and  set  well  apart,  good  shape ;   color 

white,   but  some  black  spots   do   not   disqualify, 
wooled  to  the  knees        10 

8.  Fleece.  —  Of  even  length  and  quality  over  the  body, 

not  less  than  eight  inches  for  one  year's  growth    .         10 

9.  Quality   of   Wool.  —  Rather   fine   long  wool,  strong, 

lustrous  fiber ;   no  tendency  to  cot 5 

Perfection 100 

COTSWOLD  SHEEP — STANPARD  OF  EXCELLENCE  AND  SCALE 
OF  POINTS 

For  Cotswold  Ram  —  Head  not  too  fine,  moderately  small 
and  broad  between  the  eyes  and  nostrils,  but  without  a 
short,  thick  appearance,  and  in  young  animals  well 
covered  on  the  crown  with  long,  lustrous  wool  ...  8 

Face.  —  Either  white  or  slightly  mixed  with  gray,  or  white 

dappled  with  brown 4 

Nostrils.  —  Wide  and  expanded  ;   nose  dark 1 

Eyes.  —  Prominent  but  mild  looking 2 

Ears.  —  Broad,  long,  moderately  thin  and  covered  with 

short  hair 4 

Collar.  —  Full  from  breast  and  shoulders,  tapering  grad- 
ually all  the  way  to  where  the  neck  and  head  join.  The 
neck  should  be  short,  thick  and  strong,  indicating  con- 
stitutional vigor,  and  free  from  coarse  and  loose  skin  .  6 

Shoulders.  —  Broad  and  full,  and  at  the  same  time  join  so 
gradually  to  the  collar  forward  and  chine  backward  as 
not  to  leave  the  least  hollow  in  either  place  ...  8 


APPENDIX  385 

PERFECT 

Boom 

Forelegs.  —  The  mutton  on  the  arm  or  forethigh  should 
come  quite  to  the  knee.  Leg  upright  with  heavy  bone, 
being  clear  from  superfluous  skin,  with  wool  to  fetlock, 
and  may  be  mixed  with  gray 4 

Breast.  —  Broad  and  well  forward,  keeping  the  legs  wide 

apart ;  girth  or  chest,  full  and  deep 10 

Forefiank.  —  Quite  full,  not  showing  hollow  behind  the 

shoulders 5 

Back  and  Loin.  —  Broad,  flat  and  straight,  from  which  the 

ribs  must  spring  with  a  fine  circular  arch 12 

Belly.  —  Straight  on  under  line.  3 

Quarters.  —  Long  and  full,  with  mutton  quite  down  to  the 

hock 8 

Hock.  —  Should  stand  neither  in  nor  out 2 

Twist  or  Junction  inside  the  Thighs.  —  Deep,  wide  and  full, 
which,  with  a  broad  breast,  will  keep  the  legs  open  and 
upright 5 

Fleece.  —  The  whole  body  should  be  covered  with  long, 

lustrous  wool 18 

Total 100 

For  Cotswold  Ewe.  —  Head  moderately  fine,  broad  between 
the  eyes  and  nostrils,  but  without  a  short,  thick  ap- 
pearance, and  well  covered  on  crown  with  Jong,  lustrous         8 
wool x 

Face.  —  Either  white  or  slightly  mixed  with  gray,  or  white 

dappled  with  brown 4 

Nostrils.  —  Wide  and  expanded  ;   nose  dark 1 

Eyes.  —  Prominent  but  mild  looking 2 

Ears.  —  Broad,  long,  moderately  thin,  and  covered  with 

short  hair 4 

Collar.  —  Full  from  breast  and  shoulders,  tapering  gradu- 
ally all  the  way  to  where  the  neck  and  head  join ;  the 
neck  should  be  fine  and  graceful,  and  free  from  coarse 
and  loose  skin 5 

Shoulders.  —  Broad  and  full,  and  at  the  same  time  join  so 
gradually  to  the  collar  forward  and  chine  backward  as 
not  to  leave  the  least  hollow  in  either  place  ....  8 

Forelegs.  —  The  mutton  on  the  arm  or  forethigh  should 
come  quite  to  the  knee ;  leg  upright  with  heavy  bone, 
being  clear  from  superfluous  skin,  with  wool  to  fetlock, 

and  may  be  mixed  with  gray 4 

2c 


386  APPENDIX 

PERFECT 
SCORE 

Breast.  —  Broad  and  well  forward,  keeping  the  legs  wide 

apart ;  girth  or  chest,  full  and  deep 10 

Foreflank.  —  Quite  full,  not  showing  hollow  behind  the 

shoulder 4 

Back  and  Loin.  —  Broad,  flat  and  straight,  from  which  the 

ribs  must  spring  with  a  fine  circular  arch 12 

Belly.  —  Straight  on  under  line 5 

Quarters.  —  Long  and  full,  with  mutton  quite  down  to  the 

hock 8 

Hock.  —  Should  stand  neither  in  nor  out 2 

Twist  or  Junction  inside  the  Thighs.  —  Deep,  wide  and  full, 

which,  with  a  broad  breast,  will  keep  the  legs  open  and 

upright 5 

Fleece.  —  The  whole  body  should  be  covered  with  long, 

lustrous  wool 18 

Total  100 


BERKSHIRE  SWINE  —  STANDARD  OP  EXCELLENCE 

Color.  —  Black,  white  feet,  face  and  tip  of  tail,  but  skin  and 

hair  occasionally  showing  tinge  of  bronze  or  copper 

color.    An  occasional  splash  of  white  not  objectionable ; 

lack  of  either  of  white  points  admissible 3 

Face  and  Snout.  —  Face  well  dished  and  broad  between  eyes. 

Snout  short  and  broad  7 

Eyes.  —  Prominent,  clean,  clear,  large,  dark  hazel  or  gray  2 
Ears.  —  Medium  size,  setting  well  apart,  carried  fairly  erect, 

inclining  forward,  especially  with  age 3 

Jowl.  —  Full,  firm,  not  flabby  or  hanging  too  low,  running 

back  well  on  neck 3 

Neck.  —  Full,  short  and  slightly  arched  ;  broad  on  top ; 

well  connected  with  shoulder 3 

Hair.  —  Fine,  straight,  smooth,  lying  close  to  and  covering 

the  body  well.  Free  from  bristles 3 

Skin.  —  Smooth  and  mellow 3 

Chest.  —  Deep,  full  and  wide,  with  good  heart  girth  ...  6 
Shoulder.  —  Smooth  and  even  on  top  and  in  line  with  side  .  6 
Side.  —  Deep,  smooth,  well  let  down ;  straight  side  and 

bottom  lines 6 

Back.  —  Broad,  full,  strong,  level  or  slightly  arched ;  ribs 

well  sprung 10 


APPENDIX  387 


SCORE 

Flank.  —  Extending  well  back  and  low  down  on  leg,  making 

nearly  a  straight  line  with  lower  part  of  side  ....  5 

Loin.  —  Full,  wide  and  well  covered  with  flesh     ....         6 

Ham.  —  Deep,  wide,  thick  and  firm,  extending  well  up  on 

back  and  holding  thickness  well  down  to  hock  .  .  10 

Tail.  —  Well  up  on  line  with  back ;  neither  too  fine,  short, 

nor  tapering 2 

Legs  and  Feet.  —  Straight  and  strong,  set  wide  apart,  short 
in  pastern,  with  hoofs  nearly  erect,  capable  of  carrying 
great  weight 10 

Size.  —  Size  all  that  is  possible  without  loss  of  quality  or 
symmetry,  with  good  length.  Weight  in  good  condi- 
tion :  boars  at  12  months,  350  to  450  Ib. ;  at  24  months, 
500  to  700  Ib. ;  sows  at  12  months,  350  to  400  Ib. ;  at 
24  months,  500  to  700  Ib 6 

Appearance  and  character.  —  Vigorous,  attractive,  of  good 

disposition,  firm  and  easy  movement 6 

100 

POLAND  CHINA  SWINE  —  DESCRIPTION  AND  SCORE  CARD 

Head  and  face.  —  3. 

Head  should  be  broad,  even  and  smooth  between  and  above 
the  eyes.  Slightly  dished,  tapering  evenly  and  gradually 
to  near  the  end  of  the  nose.  Broad  lower  jaw,  head  inclined 
to  shortness  but  not  enough  to  give  appearance  of  stubby 
nose.  And  in  male  a  masculine  appearance  and  ex- 
pression. 

Objections  :  Head  long,  narrow  between  the  eyes ;  nose  un- 
even and  coarse ;   too  large  at  the  muzzle  or  the  head  too 
short ;    not   full   or   high   above   the   eyes ;    or  too  much 
wrinkled  around  or  above  the  eyes. 
Eyes.  —  2. 

Full,  clear,  prominent  and  expressive. 

Objections  :  Dull  expression,  deep  set  or  obscure.     Sight 
impaired  by  wrinkles,  fat,  or  other  cause. 
Ears.  —  2. 

Ears  attached  to  the  head  by  a  short,  firm  knuckle,  giving 
free  and  easy  action.  Standing  up  slightly  at  the  base 
to  within  two  thirds  of  the  tip,  where  a  gentle  break  or  drop 
should  occur ;  in  size  neither  too  large  nor  too  small,  but 
even,  fine,  thin,  leaf  shape ;  slightly  inclined  outward. 


388  APPENDIX 

Objections:   Large,  floppy,  straight,  upright   or  coarse; 
knuckle  long,  letting   the   ear   drop  too  close  to  the  head 
and  face,  hindering  of  free  use  of  the  ears. 
Neck.  —  2. 

Short,  wide,  even,  smooth,  well  arched.  Rounding  and  full 
from  poll  to  shoulder,  with  due  regard  to  the  characteristics 
of  the  sex. 

Objections:  Long,   narrow,  thin  and  drooping  from  the 
shoulder  to  the  poll  with  unevenness  caused  by  wrinkles 
or  creases. 
Jowl.  —  2. 

Full,  broad,  deep,  smooth  and  firm,  carrying  fullness  back 
near  to  point  of  shoulders,  and  below  line  of  lower  jaw  so 
that  lower  line  will  be  as^  low  as  breast  bone  when  head  is 
carried  up  level. 

Objections :    Light,    flabby,    thin    and    wedge    shaped, 
deeply    wrinkled,    not    drooping   below    line  of  lower  jaw, 
and  not  carrying  fullness  back  to  shoulder  and  brisket. 
Shoulder.  — -  6. 

Broad  and  oval  at  top,  showing  evenness  with  the  back  and 
neck,  with  good  width  from  the  top  to  the  bottom,  and  even 
smoothness  extending  well  forward. 

Objections  :  Narrow  at  top  or  bottom  ;  not  as  deep  as  the 
body,  uneven  width.     Shields  on  pigs  under  eight  months 
of  age,  or  showing  too  much  shield  at  any  age. 
Chest.  —  12. 

Large,  wide,  deep  and  full ;  even  under  line  to  the  shoulder 
and  sides  with  no  creases ;  giving  plenty  of  room  for  the 
heart  and  other  organs,  making  a  large  girth  indicating  much 
vitality.  Brisket  smooth,  even  and  broad;  wide  between 
the  legs  and  extending  well  forward,  showing  in  front. 

Objections  :  Pinched  appearance  at  the  top  or  bottom,  or 
tucked  in  back  of  the  forelegs ;  showing  too  narrow  between 
the  legs  ;    not  depth  enough  back  of  the  shoulder.     Brisket 
uneven,  narrow,  not  prominent. 
Back  and  loin.  —  14. 

Broad,  straight  or  slightly  arched,  carrying  same  width  from 
shoulder  to  ham,  surface  even,  smooth,  free  from  lumps, 
creases,  or  projections ;  not  too  long  but  broad  on  top, 
indicating  well-sprung  ribs;  should  not  be  higher  at  hip 
than  at  shoulder  and  should  fill  out  at  junction  with  side, 
so  that  a  straightedge  placed  along  at  top  of  side  will  touch 
all  the  way  from  point  of  shoulder  to  point  of  ham.  Should 
be  shorter  than  lower  belly  line. 


APPENDIX  389 

Objections  :  Narrow,  creased  back  of  shoulders,  swayed  or 
hollow,  dropping  below  a  straight  line ;  humped  or  wrinkled  ; 
too  long  or  sunfish  shaped ;  loin  high,  narrow,  depressed 
or  humped  up ;  surface  lumpy,  creased,  ridgy  or  uneven ; 
width  at  side  not  as  much  as  shoulder  and  ham. 

Sides  and  ribs.  —  8. 

Sides  full,  firm  and  deep,  free  from  wrinkles;  carrying  size 
down  to  belly ;  even  from  ham  to  shoulder ;  ribs  of  good 
length,  well  sprung  at  top  and  bottom. 

Objections :  Flat,  thin,  flabby,  pinched,  not  as  full  at 
bottom  as  at  top ;  drawn  in  at  shoulder  so  as  to  produce  a 
crease,  or  pinched  and  tucked  up  and  in  as  it  approaches  the 
ham  ;  uneven  surface ;  ribs  flat  or  too  short. 

Belly  and  flank.  —  4. 

Belly  broad,  straight  and  full,  indicating  capacity  and  room, 
being  about  the  same  or  on  a  level  at  the  flank  with  the  under 
line  of  the  chest.  Under  line  straight,  or  nearly  so,  and  free 
from  flabby  appearance. 

Objections  :  Belly  uneven  and  flabby,  or  apparent  looseness 
in  the  make-up.  Pinched  up  in  the  flank  or  flanked  too  high. 

Ham  and  rump.  —  10. 

Hams  broad,  full,  deep  and  long  from  rump  to  hock.  Fully 
developed  above  and  below,  being  wide  at  the  point  of  the 
hip,  carrying  width  well  down  to  the  lower  part  of  the  hams. 
Fleshy,  plump,  rounding  fullness  perceptible  everywhere. 
Rump  rounding  and  gradually  sloping  from  the  loin  to  the 
root  of  the  tail.  Broad  and  well  developed  all  along  from 
loin  and  gradually  rounding  to  the  buttock;  lower  front 
part  of  ham  should  be  full  and  stifle  well  covered  with  flesh. 
Even  width  of  ham  and  rump  with  the  back,  loin,  and 
body.  Even  a  greater  width  as  to  females  not  objectionable. 
Objections  :  Ham  short,  narrow,  too  round  or  slim.  Not 
filled  out  above  or  below,  or  unshapely  for  deep  meat; 
not  as  wide  as  the  body ;  back  or  loin  too  tapering  or  small. 
Rump  narrow  or  pointed,  not  plump  or  well  filled  or  too 
steep  from  loin  to  the  tail. 

Legs  and  feet.  —  10. 

Legs  medium  length,  straight,  heavy  bone,  set  well  apart  and 
squarely  under  body,  tapering,  well  muscled  and  wide 
above  knee  and  hock;  below  hock  and  knee  round  and 
tapering,  capable  of  sustaining  weight  of  animal  in  full  flesh 
without  breaking  down;  bone  firm  and  of  fine  texture; 
pasterns  short  and  nearly  upright.  Feet  firm,  short,  tough 
and  free  from  defects. 


390  APPENDIX 

Objections  :  Legs  long,  slim,  coarse,  crooked  ;  muscles  small 
above  hock  and  knee ;  as  large  at  foot  as  above  knee ; 
pasterns  long,  slim,  crooked  or  weak ;  the  hocks  turned  in 
or  out  of  straight  line ;  legs  too  close  together ;  hoofs  long, 
slim  and  weak;  toes  spreading  out  or  crooked  or  unable 
to  bear  up  weight  of  animal  without  breaking  down. 
Tail.  —  1. 

Tail  of  medium  length  and  size,  smooth  and  tapering  well 
and  carried  in  a  curve. 

Objections:  Coarse  and  long,  without  a  curl;  or  short, 
crooked  or  stubby ;  or  too  small,  fine,  uneven,  not  tapering. 
Coat.  —  3. 

Fine,  straight,  smooth,  lying  close  to  and  covering  the  body 
well ;  not  clipped  ;  evenly  distributed  over  the  body. 

Objections :  Bristles,   hair   coarse,   harsh,   thin,  wavy  or 
curly ;  swirls ;    standing  up ;    ends  of  hair  split  and  brown, 
not  evenly  distributed  over  all  of  the  body,  except  the  belly. 
Clipped  coats  should  be  cut  1.5  points. 
Color.  —  2. 

Black  with  six  (6)  white  points ;  tip  of  tail,  four  white  feet  and 
white  in  face,  or  on  the  nose  or  on  the  point  of  the  lower 
jaw.  All  to  be  perceptible  without  close  examination. 
Splashes  of  white  on  the  jaw,  legs,  or  flank  or  a  few  spots 
of  white  on  the  body  not  objectionable. 

Objections :  Solid   black,   white   mixed   or  sandy  spots. 
Speckled  with  white  hairs  over  the  body;    mottled  face  or 
white  and  black ;   hair  mixed,  making  a  grizzly  appearance. 
Size.  —  10. 

Large  for  age.  Condition,  vigor  and  vitality  to  be  considered. 
There  should  be  a  difference  between  breeding  animals 
and  those  kept  or  fitted  for  the  show  of  at  least  25  per  cent 
in  size.  In  show  condition  Or  when  fat,  weights  for  the 
different  ages  should  be  about  as  follows :  Boars  over  two 
years  old,  seven  hundred  (700)  pounds.  Sows  over  two  years 
old,  six  hundred  (600)  pounds.  Boars  eighteen  months  old, 
six  hundred  (600)  pounds.  Sows  eighteen  months  old, 
five  hundred  (500)  pounds.  Boars  one  year  old,  four 
hundred  and  fifty  (450)  pounds.  Sows  one  year  old,  four 
hundred  and  fifty  (450)  pounds.  Boars  and  sows  six  months 
old,  one  hundred  and  eighty  (180)  pounds.  All  hogs  in  just 
fair  breeding  condition,  one  fourth  less  for  size.  The  keep- 
ing and  chance  that  a  young  boar  has  cuts  quite  a  figure 
in  his  size  and  should  be  considered,  other  points  being 
equal.  Fine  quality  and  size,  combined,  are  desirable. 


APPENDIX  391 

Objections  :  Overgrown,  coarse,  flabby,  loose  appearance, 
gangling,  hard  to  fatten  ;  too  fine,  undersize ;  short,  stubby, 
inclined  to  chubby  fatness.     Not  a  hardy,  robust  animal. 
Action  and  style.  —  3. 

Action  vigorous,  easy  and  graceful.  Style  attractive;  high 
carriage ;  and  in  males  testicles  should  be  prominent  and 
of  about  the  same  size,  and  yet  not  too  large  or  pouchy. 

Objections :    Clumsy,   slow,    awkward    movement ;    low 
carriage,  waddling  or  twisting  walk.     A  seeming  tired  or 
lazy  appearance ;   not  standing  erect  and  firm. 
Condition.  —  2. 

Healthy,  skin  clear  of  scurf,  scales  and  sores ;  soft  and  mellow 
to  the  touch  ;  flesh  fine ;  evenly  laid  on  and  free  from  lumps 
and  wrinkles.  Hair  soft  and  lying  close  to  the  body ;  good 
feeding  qualities. 

Objections:  Unhealthy,  skin  scaly,  wrinkled,  scabby  or 
harsh,  flabbiness  or  lumpy  flesh ;    too  much  fat  for  breeding. 
Hair  harsh,   dry  and  standing  up  from  the  body ;    poor 
feeders  ;   deafness,  partial  or  total. 
Disposition.  —  2. 

Lively,  easily  handled  and  seemingly  kind  and  responsive  to 
good  treatment. 

Objections :  Cross,  sluggish,  restless,  wild  or  of  a  vicious 
turn. 
Symmetry  of  points.  —  2. 

The  adaptation  of  all  the  points,  size  and  style  combined,  to 
make  the  desired  type  or  model. 


CHESTER  WHITE  SWINE  —  SCALE  OP  POINTS 

Head  and  Face    ....  4  Feet  and  Legs   ....  9 

Eyes       . 2  Tail .  1 

Ears'       2  Coat 3 

Neck 2  Color 2 

Jowl        2  Size 8 

Shoulders 6  Action  and  Style    ...  3 

Chest 12  Condition 2 

Back  and  Loin     ....  14  Disposition 2 

Sides,  and  Ribs     ....  9  Symmetry     .....  3 

Belly  and  Flank  ....  4 

Ham  and  Rump  ....  10             Total JOO 


392  APPENDIX 

DUROC  JERSEY  SWINE  —  SCORE  CARD 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 

No.  POINTS 

POINTS  OFF 

1  Head    .     
2  Eyes     

4 
2 
2 
2 
2 
6 
12 
14 
9 
4 
10 
9 
1 
3 
2 
8 
3 
2 
2 
3 

3  Ears      
4  Neck    
5  Jowl      
6  Shoulder        ....... 

7  Chest    
8  Back  and  Loin        
9  Sides  and  Ribs        

10  Belly  and  Flank      ..... 
11  Ham  and  Rump     

12  Feet  and  Legs         
13  Tail       
14  Coat     >     .     . 
15  Color    
16  Size       
17  Action  and  Style 

18  Condition 

19  Disposition 

20  Symmetry  of  Points    .... 
Total      ....... 
Points  Off 
Score  of  Animal 

100 

Detailed  Description 

Head  and  face.  —  Head  short  and  wide ;  cheeks  neat ;  jaws 
broad  and  strong ;  forehead  medium,  high  and  wide ;  face 
short  and  smooth ;  nose  neat,  tapering  and  slightly  dished. 
Objections :  Head  long,  narrow  or  coarse ;  cheeks  too  full ; 
forehead  low  and  narrow ;  jaws  contracted  and  weak ; 
face  long,  narrow  and  straight;  nose  coarse,  clumsy  or 
dished  like  a  Berkshire. 

Eyes.  —  Bright,   large,   clear  and  free  from  wrinkles  or  over- 
hanging fat. 

Objections :  Small,  deep  set,  surrounded  by  wrinkles  or  fat. 

Ears.  —  Drooping  at  tip  to  give  graceful  appearance ;    thin ; 


APPENDIX  393 

soft ;    pointing  outward  and  forward ;    well  proportioned 
to  size  of  body. 

Objections :  Too  large  and  coarse ;    thick,  lopping ;    lying 
too  near  the  face ;  stiff,  erect,  or  too  small.    Not  under  control. 
Neck.  —  Wide  ;   deep ;  short  and  nicely  arched  ;  neatly  tapering 
from  shoulder. 

Objections :  Narrow ;  thin  ;  long ;  flat  on  top ;  tucked  up ; 
not  extending  down  to  breast  bone. 

Jowl.  —  Smooth  ;     neat ;     firm ;     full ;     carrying    fullness    well 

back  to  shoulders  and  brisket  when  head  is  carried  up  level. 

Objections :  Light ;  rough  and  deeply  wrinkled ;  too  large 

and    flabby ;   not  carrying  fullness  back  to  shoulders   and 

brisket. 

Shoulders.  —  Broad  ;  deep  and  full ;  extending  in  line  with  the 
side  and  carrying  size  down  to  line  of  belly. 

Objections :  Deficient  in  width  or  depth  ;  extending  above 
line  of  back ;  thick  beyond  line  of  sides  and  hams  ;  shields  on 
boars  too  coarse  and  prominent. 

Chest  —  Heart  girth.  —  Large,  wide,  deep  and  full ;  even  under 
line  to  the  shoulder  and  sides  with  no  creases ;  giving  plenty 
of  room  for  the  heart  and  other  organs,  making  a  large  girth 
indicating  much  vitality.  Brisket  smooth,  even  and  broad  ; 
wide  between  the  legs  and  extending  well  forward  showing 
in  front. 

Objections :  Pinched  appearance  at  the  top  or  bottom,  or 
tucked  in  back  of  forelegs ;  showing  too  narrow  between  the 
legs,  not  depth  enough  back  of  the  shoulder.  Brisket 
uneven,  narrow,  not  prominent. 

Back  and  loin.  —  Broad  ;  straight  or  slightly  arched  ;  uniform 
width ;  free  from  lumps  or  rolls ;  same  height  and  width 
at  shoulder  as  at  ham. 

Objections :   Narrow ;   swayed ;   humped ;   creasing   back 
of  shoulders  ;  sunfish  shaped ;  uneven  width ;  lumps  or  rolls. 
Sides.  —  Full ;    smooth ;    deep ;    carrying  size  down  to  line  of 
belly  ;  even  with  line  of  ham  and  shoulder. 

Objections :    Flat ;   thin  ;   flabby ;   uneven  surface ;   com- 
pressed at  bottom  ;   shrunken  at  shoulder  and  ham. 
Ribs.  —  Long ;  well  sprung  at  top  and  bottom  ;  giving  animal  a 
square  form. 

Objections  :  Too  short ;   flat. 

Belly.  —  Same  width  as  back ;  full ;  straight ;  drooping  as  low 
at  flank  as  at  bottom  of  chest ;  line  of  lower  edge  running 
parallel  with  sides. 

Objections  :  Narrow ;   pinched ;   sagging  or  flabby. 


394  APPENDIX 

Flank.  —  Full  and  even  with  body  ;   equaling  heart  girth. 

Objections :  Thin,  tucked  up  or  drawn  in  ;  less  than  heart 
girth  or  length  of  body  from  top  of  head  to  root  of  tail. 

Ham  or  rump.  —  Broad ;  full ;  long ;  wide  and  deep  ;  admitting 
of  no  swells ;  buttock  full,  neat  and  clean ;  stifle  well 
covered  with  flesh,  nicely  tapering  toward  the  hock ;  rump 
slightly  rounding  from  loin  to  root  of  tail,  same  width  as 
back,  making  an  even  line  with  sides. 

Objections :  Narrow ;  short ;  not  filled  out  to  stifle  ;  too 
much  cut  up  in  crotch  or  twist ;  not  coming  down  to  hock ; 
buttocks  flabby ;  rump  flat,  narrow,  too  long,  too  sharp  or 
peaked  at  root  of  tail. 

Legs.  —  Medium  length  ;  strong  and  straight ;  set  well  apart 
and  well  under  body  ;  bone  of  good  size  ;  firm  ;  well  muscled  ; 
wide  above  knee  and  hock,  round  and  tapering  below  knee 
and  hock,  enabling  the  animal  to  carry  its  weight  with  ease ; 
pasterns  short  and  nearly  upright. 

Objections :  Too  short  or  too  long ;  weak ;  crooked ;  too 
close  together ;  muscles  weak ;  bone  too  large  and  coarse, 
without  taper ;  pasterns  long,  crooked  or  slim. 

Feet  —  Short ;   firm  ;   tough ;   animal  standing  well  up  on  toes. 

Objections :  Hoofs  long,  slim,  weak ;  toes  spreading, 
crooked  or  turned  up. 

Tail.  —  Small ;  smooth ;  nicely  tapering ;  root  slightly  covered 
with  flesh ;  carried  in  a  curl. 

Objections  :    Coarse ;   too  long ;   clumsy  ;   straight. 

Coat.  —  Fine ;  either  straight  or  wavy  with  preference  for 
straight ;  evenly  distributed  and  covering  the  body  well. 

Objections  :  Bristles  ;  swirls  ;  hair  coarse,  thin,  standing 
up,  not  evenly  distributed  over  all  the  body  except  the  belly. 

Color.  —  White.  Red  or  black  spots  in  hair  disqualify,  but  blue 
spots  in  hide  (commonly  known  as  freckles),  while  objec- 
tionable and  to  be  discouraged,  do  not  argue  impurity  of 
blood. 

Objections  :  Color  any  other  than  white. 

Size.  —  Large  for  age  and  condition.  Boar  two  years  and  over, 
if  in  good  flesh,  should  weigh  not  less  than  500  pounds; 
sow  same  age  and  condition,  not  less  than  450  pounds. 
Boars  eighteen  months  old,  in  good  flesh,  should  weigh  not 
less  than  400  pounds;  sows,  350.  Boars  twelve  months 
old,  not  less  than  350  pounds  ;  sows,  300.  Boars  and  sows 
six  months  old  not  less  than  150  pounds  each,  and  other 
ages  in  proportion. 

Objections :  Overgrown,  coarse,  uncouth,  hard  to  fatten. 


APPENDIX 


395 


Action.  —  Easy  and  graceful ;  high  carriage  ;  active ;  gentle 
and  easily  handled.  In  males,  testicles  should  be  readily 
seen,  and  of  same  size  and  carriage. 

Objections  :    Sluggish  ;    awkward  ;    low  carriage  ;    wild ; 
vicious.     In  males,  testicles  not  distinctly  visible,  or  not  of 
same  size  and  carriage. 
Condition.  —  Healthy  and  mellow  to  touch,  fat  evenly  laid  on. 

Objections :  Harsh  to  touch,  flabbiness,  fat  in  lumps  on 
back  or  sides. 
Disposition.  —  Quiet  and  gentle. 

Objections  :  Cross,  restless,  quarrelsome. 

Symmetry  or  adaptation  of  points.  —  The  adaptation  of  all  the 
points,  size  and  style  combined  to  make  the  desired  type 
or  model. 


O.  I.  C.  SWINE  —  SCALE  OF  POINTS 


100 


Head  and  face.  —  Head  short  and  wide ;  cheeks  neat ;  jaws 
broad  and  strong ;  forehead  medium,  high  and  wide ;  face 
short  and  smooth ;  nose  neat,  tapering  and  slightly  dished. 
Objections  :  Head  long,  narrow,  or  coarse  ;  cheeks  too  full ; 
forehead  low  and  narrow ;  jaws  contracted  and  weak ;  face 
long,  narrow  and  straight ;  nose  coarse,  clumsy  or  dished 
like  a  Berkshire. 

Eyes.  —  Bright,  large,  clear  and  free  from  wrinkles  or  over- 
hanging fat. 

Objections  :  Small,  deep  set,  surrounded  by  wrinkles  or  fat. 

Ears.  —  Drooping  at  tip  to  give  graceful  appearance ;  thin ; 
soft ;  pointing  outward  and  forward  ;  well  proportioned  to 
size  of  body. 


Head  and  Face  . 
Eyes 

4     Feet  and  Legs              .     . 
2     Tail 

Ears  .  .  .  . 
Neck 

...       2     Coat     
2     Color   . 

Jowl  .  .  .  . 
Shoulders 

...       2     Size      
6     Action  and  Style    . 

Chest 

12     Condition 

Back  and  Loin 
Sides  and  Ribs 

.     .     14     Disposition   
9     Symmetry 

Belly  and  Flank  . 
Ham  and  Rump  . 

...       4 
10         Total    . 

Detailed  Description 

896  APPENDIX 

Objections:  Too  large  and  coarse;  thick,  lopping;  lying 
too  near  the  face ;  stiff,  erect,  or  too  small.  Not  under 
control. 

Neck.  —  Wide  ;  deep ;  short  and  nicely  arched  ;  neatly  tapering 
from  shoulder. 

Objections  :  Narrow ;  thin ;  long ;  flat  on  top ;  tucked  up  ; 
not  extending  down  to  breast  bone. 

Jowl.  —  Smooth  ;  neat ;  firm ;  full ;  carrying  fullness  well  back 
to  shoulders  and  brisket  when  head  is  carried  up  level. 

Objections  :  Light ;  rough  and  deeply  wrinkled ;  too  large 
and  flabby ;  not  carrying  fullness  back  to  shoulders  and 
brisket. 

Shoulders.  —  Broad  ;  deep  and  full ;  extending  in  line  with  the 
side  and  carrying  size  down  to  line  of  belly. 

Objections  :  Deficient  in  width  or  depth ;  extending  above 
line  of  back ;  thick  beyond  line  of  sides  and  hams ;  shields 
on  boars  too  coarse  and  prominent. 

Chest  —  Heart  girth.  —  Large,  wide,  deep  and  full ;  even  under 
line  to  the  shoulder  and  sides  with  no  creases  ;  giving  plenty 
of  room  for  the  heart  and  other  organs,  making  a  large  girth 
indicating  much  vitality.  Brisket  smooth,  even  and  broad  ; 
wide  between  the  legs  and  extending  well  forward,  showing 
in  front. 

Objections :  Pinched  appearance  at  the  top  or  bottom,  or 
tucked  in  back  of  forelegs ;  showing  too  narrow  between  the 
legs,  not  depth  enough  back  of  the  shoulder.  Brisket 
uneven,  narrow,  not  prominent. 

Back  and  loin.  —  Broad  ;  straight  or  slightly  arched  ;  uniform 
width ;  free  from  lumps  or  rolls ;  same  height  and  width 
at  shoulder  as  at  ham. 

Objections  :  Narrow ;  swayed  ;  humped  ;  creasing  back  of 
shoulders ;   sunfish  shaped ;   uneven  width ;   lumps  or  rolls. 
Sides.  —  Full ;    smooth ;    deep ;    carrying  size  down  to  line  of 
belly ;  even  with  line  of  ham  and  shoulder. 

Objections  :  Flat ;    thin ;  flabby ;    uneven  surface  ;  com- 
pressed at  bottom ;  shrunken  at  shoulder  and  ham. 
Ribs.  —  Long ;  well  sprung  at  top  and  bottom  ;  giving  animal  a 
square  form. 

Objections :  Too  short ;   flat. 

Belly.  —  Same  width  as  back ;  full ;  straight ;  drooping  as  low 
at  flank  as  at  bottom  of  chest ;  line  of  lower  edge  running 
parallel  with  sides. 

Objections :  Narrow ;   pinched  ;   sagging  or  flabby. 
Flank.  —  Full  and  even  with  body ;   equaling  heart  girth. 


APPENDIX  397 

Objections  :  Thin,  tucked  up  or  drawn  in  ;  less  than  heart 
girth  or  length  of  bodj'  from  top  of  head  to  root  of  tail. 

Ham  and  rump.  —  Broad  ;  full ;  long ;  wide  and  deep ;  admit- 
ting of  no  swells ;  buttock  full,  neat  and  clean ;  stifle  well 
covered  with  flesh,  nicely  tapering  toward  the  hock ;  rump 
slightly  rounding  from  loin  to  root  of  tail,  same  width  as 
back,  making  an  even  line  with  sides. 

Objections  :  Narrow ;  short ;  not  filled  out  to  stifle ;  too 
much  cut  up  in  crotch  or  twist ;  not  coming  down  to  hock ; 
buttocks  flabby ;  rump  flat,  narrow,  too  long,  too  sharp  or 
peaked  at  root  of  tail. 

Legs.  —  Medium  length ;  strong  and  straight ;  set  well  apart 
and  well  under  body ;  bone  of  good  size ;  firm  ;  well  muscled  ; 
wide  above  knee  and  hock,  round  and  tapering  below  knee 
and  hock,  enabling  the  animal  to  carry  its  weight  with  ease ; 
pasterns  short  and  nearly  upright. 

Objections  :  Too  short  or  too  long ;  weak ;  crooked ;  too 
close  together ;  muscles  weak ;  bone  too  large  and  coarse, 
without  taper ;  pasterns  long,  crooked  or  slim. 

Feet.  —  Short ;   firm ;   tough ;  animal  standing  well  up  on  toes. 

Objections :  Hoofs  long,  slim,  weak ;  toes  spreading, 
crooked  or  turned  up. 

Tail.  —  Small,  smooth  ;  nicely  tapering ;  root  slightly  covered 
with  flesh  ;  carried  in  a  curl. 

Objections  :  Coarse ;   too  long ;   clumsy ;   straight. 

Coat.  —  Fine ;  either  straight  or  wavy  with  preference  for 
straight ;  evenly  distributed  and  covering  the  body  well. 

Objections:  Bristles;  swirls;  hah*  coarse,  thin,  standing 
up,  not  evenly  distributed  over  all  the  body  except  the 
belly. 

Color.  —  White.  Red  or  black  spots  in  hair  disqualify,  but  blue 
spots  in  hide  (commonly  known  as  freckles),  while  objec- 
tionable and  to  be  discouraged,  do  not  argue  impurity  of 
blood. 

Objections  :  Color  any  other  than  white. 

Size.  —  Large  for  age  and  condition.  Boar  two  years  and  over, 
if  in  good  flesh,  should  weigh  not  less  than  500  pounds ; 
sow  same  age  and  condition  not  less  than  450  pounds. 
Boars  eighteen  months  old,  in  good  flesh,  should  weigh 
not  less  than  400  pounds ;  sows,  350.  Boars  twelve  months 
old,  not  less  than  350  pounds ;  sows,  300.  Boars  and  sows 
six  months  old,  not  less  than  150  pounds  each,  and  other  ages 
in  proportion. 

Objections  :  Overgrown,  coarse,  uncouth,  hard  to  fatten. 


398  APPENDIX 

Action.  —  Easy  and  graceful;  high  carriage;  active;  gentle 
and  easily  handled.  In  males,  testicles  should  be  readily 
seen,  and  of  same  size  and  carriage. 

Objections  :    Sluggish ;    awkward ;    low  carriage  ;    wild  ; 
vicious.     In  males,  testicles  not  distinctly  visible,  or  not  of 
same  size  and  carriage. 
Condition.  —  Healthy  and  mellow  touch,  fat  evenly  laid  on. 

Objections :  Harsh  to  touch,  flabbiness,  fat  in  lumps  on 
back  or  sides. 
Disposition.  —  Quiet  and  gentle. 

Objections  :  Cross,  restless,  quarrelsome. 

Symmetry  or  adaptation  of  points.  —  The  adaptation  of  all  of  the 
points,  size  and  style  combined,  to  make  the  desired  type  of 
model. 

HAMPSHIRE  SWINE  —  SCALE  OF  POINTS 
Disqualifications 

Color.  —  Spotted,  more  than  two  thirds  white  or  solid  black. 
Form.  —  Any  radical  deformity,   ears  very  large  or  drooping 

over  eyes,  crooked  or  weak  legs  or  broken-down  feet. 
Condition.  —  Seriously  impaired  or  diseased,  excessive  grossness, 

barrenness  in  animals  over  two  years  of  age,   chuffy  or 

squabby  fat. 

Size.  —  Not  two  thirds  standard  weight. 
Pedigree.  —  Not  eligible  to  record. 

Detailed  Description 

1.  Head  and  face.  —  Head  medium  length,  rather  narrow, 

cheeks  not  full ;    face  nearly  straight  and  medium 
width  between  the  eyes,  surface  even  and  regular    .     .       4 

Objections :  Head  large,  coarse  and  ridgy,  nose 
crooked  or  much  dished. 

2.  Eyes.  —  Bright  and  lively,  free  from  wrinkles  or  fat  sur- 

roundings     2 

Objections :  Small,  deep  or  obscure,  or  vision  im- 
paired by  fat  or  other  cause. 

3.  Ears.  —  Medium  length,  thin,  slightly  inclined  outward 

and  forward 2 

Objections :  Large,  coarse,  thick,  large  or  long 
knuckle,  drooping  or  not  under  good  control  of  the 
animal. 


APPENDIX  399 

4.  Neck.  —  Short,  well  set  to  the  shoulders,  tapering  from 

shoulder  to  head. 

Objections  :   Long,  thick  or  bulky. 

5.  Jowl.  —  Light  and  tapering  from  neck  to  point,  neat  and 

firm 2 

Objections  :  Large,  broad,  deep  or  flabby. 

6.  Shoulders.  —  Deep,  medium  width  and  fullness,  well  in 

line  with  back 6 

Objections :  Narrow  on  top  or  bottom,  thick  be- 
yond line  with  sides  and  hams. 

7.  Chest.  —  Large,  deep  and  roomy ;   full  girth,  extending 

down  even  with  line  of  belly 12 

Objections  :  Narrow  at  top  or  bottom  ;  small  girth, 
cramped  or  tucked  up. 

8.  Back   and   loin.  —  Back    straight   or   slightly   arched ; 

medium  breadth,  with  nearly  uniform  thickness  from 
shoulders  to  hams  and  full  at  loins ;  sometimes  higher 

at  hips  than  at  shoulders        15 

Objections :  Narrow,  creased  or  drooped  behind 
shoulders ;  surface  ridgy  or  uneven. 

9.  Sides   and  ribs.  —  Sides  smooth,  full,  firm,  carry  size 

evenly  from  shoulders  to  hams ;    ribs  strong,  well 

sprung  at  top  and  bottom 8 

Objections  :  Sides  thin,  flat,  flabby  or  creased  or  ribs 
not  well  sprung. 

10.  Belly  and  flank.  —  Straight  and  full,  devoid  of  gross- 

ness  ;  flank  full  and  running  nearly  on  line  with  sides  .       6 

Objections:  Belly  sagging  or  flabby;  flank  thin 
or  tucked  up. 

11.  Hams  and  rump.  —  Hams  of  medium  width,  long  and 

deep ;  rump  slightly  rounded  from  loin  to  root  of  tail  ; 
buttock  full,  neat  and  firm ;  devoid  of  flabbiness  or 

excessive  fat 10 

Objections  :  Ham  narrow,  cut  too  high  in  crotch, 
buttock  flabby,  rump  too  fat,  too  narrow  or  too  steep, 
or  peaked  at  root  of  tail. 

12.  Legs  and  feet.  —  Legs  medium  length,  set  well  apart  and 

squarely  under  body,  wide  above  knee  and  hock,  and 
rounded  and  well  muscled  below,  tapering,  bone  me- 
dium, pasterns  short  and  nearly  upright,  toes  short  and 
firm,  enabling  the  animal  to  carry  its  weight  with  ease  10 

Objections  :  Legs  too  long,  slim,  crooked,  coarse  or 
short ;  weak  muscles  above  hock,  and  knee  bone  large 
and  coarse,  and  legs  without  taper,  pasterns  too  long 


400  APPENDIX 

to  correspond  with  length  of  leg,  too  crooked  or  too 
slender ;  feet  long,  slim  and  weak  ;  toes  spreading,  too 
long,  crooked  or  turned  up. 

13.  Tail.  —  Medium  length,  slightly  curled 1 

Objections :  Coarse,  long,  clumsy,  swinging  like  a 
pendulum. 

14.  Coat.  —  Fine,  straight,  smooth 2 

Objections :   Bristles  or  swirls,  coarse  or  curly. 

15.  Color.  —  Black,  with  exception  of  white  belt  encircling 

body,  including  forelegs .       2 

Objections :  White  running  high  on  hind  legs,  or 
extending  more  than  one  fourth  length  of  body  or 
solid  black. 

16.  Size.  —  Large  for  conditions ;  boar,  two  years  and  over, 

450 ;  sow,  same  age,  400  ;  eighteen  months  boar,  350 ; 
sow,  325;  twelve  months  boar  or  sow,  300;  six 
months,  both  sexes,  140 5 

17.  Action  and  style.  —  Active,  vigorous,  quick  and  grace- 

ful ;  style,  attractive  and  spirited 4 

Objections  :   Dull,  sluggish  and  clumsy. 

18.  Conditions.  —  Healthy,  skin  free  from  all  defects,  flesh 

evenly  laid  on  and  smooth  and  firm,  not  patchy,  and 

devoid  of  all  excess  of  grossness 4 

Objections  :  Skin  scurfy,  scaly,  mangy  or  otherwise 
unhealthy,  hair  harsh,  dwarfed  or  cramped,  not 
growthy. 

19.  Disposition.  —  Docile,  quiet  and  easily  handled     ...       3 

Objections  :  Cross,  restless,  vicious  or  with  no  am- 
bition. 

CHESHIRE  SWINE  —  STANDARD  OF  EXCELLENCE 
Head,  short  to  medium  in  length,  short  in  proportion  to  length 
of  body;  face  somewhat  dished  and  wide  between  the  eyes; 
ears  small,  erect,  in  old  animals  often  slightly  pointed  forward ; 
neck  short ;  shoulders  broad  and  full ;  hips  broad ;  body  long, 
broad  and  deep ;  hams  broad,  nearly  straight  with  back,  and 
running  well  down  towards  hock ;  legs  long  and  slim,  set  well 
apart  and  supporting  the  body  on  the  toes ;  tail  small  and  slim  ; 
hair  fine,  medium  in  thickness  and  quantity ;  color  white. 
When  grown  and  well  fattened,  should  dress  from  400  to  600. 

Scale  of  Points 

1.  Head.  —  Short  to  medium  in  length,  short  in  proportion 

to  length  of  body 8 


APPEXDIX  401 

2.  Face.  —  Somewhat  dished  and  wide  between  the  eyes  .  8 

3.  Jowl.  —  Medium  in  fullness 3 

4.  Ears.  —  Small,  fine,  erect,  and  in  old  animals  slightly 

pointing  forward 5 

5.  Neck.  —  Short  and  broad 3 

6.  Shoulders.  —  Broad,  full  and  deep 6 

7.  Girth  around  heart 8 

8.  Back.  —  Long,  broad  and  straight  nearly  to  root  of  tail  10 

9.  Side.  —  Deep  and  full,  nearly  straight  on  bottom  line  .  7 

10.  Flank.  —  Well  back  and  low  down,  making  flank  girth 

nearly  equal  to  heart  girth        3 

11.  Hams.  —  Broad  and  nearly  straight  with  back,  and 

running  down  well  towards  hock         .   • 10 

12.  Legs.  —  Small  and  slim,  set  well  apart,  supporting  body 

well  on  toes 10 

13.  Tail.  —  Small,  slim  and  tapering 3 

14.  Hair.  —  Fine,  medium  in  thickness  and  quantity    .     .  3 

15.  Color.  —  White,  and  colored  hairs  to  disqualify    ...  2 

16.  Skin.  —  Fine  and  pliable,  small  blue  spots  objection- 

able, but  allowable 3 

17.  Symmetry.  —  Animal  well  proportioned,  handsome  and 

stylish        8 

Total 100 

BIG  BLACK  PIG  —  SCALE  OP  POINTS 

Head.  —  Medium  length  and  wide  between  the  ears    ...  5 
Ears.  —  Thin,  inclined  well  over  the  face  and  not  extending 

beyond  point  of  nose 4 

Jowl.  —  Medium  size 3 

Neck.  —  Fairly  long  and  muscular 3 

Chest.  —  Wide  and  deep 3 

Shoulders.  —  Well  developed,  in  line  with  the  ribs     ...  8 

Back.  —  Long  and  level 15 

Ribs.  —  Well  sprung 5 

Loin.  —  Broad 5 

Sides.  —  Very  deep 8 

Belly  and  flank.  —  Thick  and  well  developed 7 

Quarters.  —  Long,  wide  and  not  drooping 8 

Hams.  —  Large  and  well  filled  to  hocks        10 

Tail.  —  Set  high,  of  moderate  size 3 

Legs.  —  Short,  straight,  flat  and  strong 5 

Skin  and  coat.  —  Fine  and  soft,  with  moderate  quantity  of 

straight,  silky  hair 8 

100 

2D 


402 


APPENDIX 


Objections 

Head.  —  Narrow  forehead  or  "dished  nose." 
Ears.  —  Thick,  coarse  or  pricked. 
Coat.  —  Coarse  or  curly,  with  rose ;  bristly  mane. 
Skin.  —  Wrinkled. 

Disqualification 
Color.  —  Any  other  than  black. 

MULE-FOOT  SWINE  —  SCORE  CARD 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


No. 
POINTS 


1.  Head  and  Face 4 

2.  Eyes 2 

3.  Ears 2 

4.  Neck 2 

5.  Jowl 2 

6.  Shoulder 6 

7.  Chest 12 

8.  Back  and  Loin 15 

9.  Sides  and  Ribs 

10.  Belly  and  Flank 

11.  Ham  and  Rump 10 

12.  Feet  and  Legs        10 

13.  Tail .  1 

14.  Coat 2 

15.  Color 2 

16.  Size 5 

17.  Action  and  Style 4 

18.  Condition 

19.  Disposition 3 

Total 100 

Points  off 
Score  of  Animal 


Judge    

Date. 
Breed    . 


APPENDIX  403 

Disqualifications 

Color.  —  More  white  than  four  white  points. 

Form.  —  Split  or  creased  hoof ;    broken  down  feet ;    any  radical 

deformity. 

Condition.  —  Any  abnormal  condition ;   barren  or  blind. 
Size.  —  Not  two  thirds  standard  weight. 
Pedigree.  —  Not  eligible  to  record. 

Detailed  Description 

1.  Head    and    face.  —  Head     medium     length.     Face    broad 

between  eyes;  nearly  straight,  cheeks  full,  surface  even 
and  regular. 

Objections:     Head    large,    coarse,    crooked    or    much 
dished,  long  nose. 

2.  Eyes.  —  Bright  and  lively,  free  from  wrinkles  or  fat  sur- 

roundings. 

Objections :   Small,  deep,  or  obscure,  or  vision  impaired 
by  fat  or  other  causes. 

3.  Ears.  —  Medium    length,    thin    tipped,    slightly    inclined 

outward  and  forward,  knuck  small  and  well  set  to  the  head. 
Objections :   Large,  coarse,  thick,  large  or  long  knuck, 
drooping  or  not  under  good  control  of  the  animal,  or  too 
erect. 

4.  Neck.  —  Short,   well   set   to   the   shoulders,   tapering  from 

shoulder  to  head. 

Objections :   Long,  thick  or  bulky. 

5.  Jowl.  —  Full,  neat  and  firm,  tapering  from  neck  to  point. 

Objections :   Thin  or  flabby. 

6.  Shoulders.  —  Medium  width,  deep,  full,  not  extending  above 

line  of  back. 

Objections :  Narrow,    cramped,  flat,   extending   above 
line  of  back  and  sloping  too  much  from  point  to  top. 

7.  Chest.  —  Large,  deep  and  roomy ;  full  girth,  extending  down 

even  with  line  of  belly. 

Objections :    Narrow  at  top  or  bottom ;    small  girth, 
cramped  or  tucked  up. 

8.  Back   and    loin.  —  Slightly   arched ;     good    breadth,    with 

uniform  thickness  from  shoulders  to  hams ;  full  at  loin. 

Objections :    Narrow,     creased     or     drooped     behind 
shoulders ;   surface  ridgy  or  uneven. 

9.  Sides  and  ribs.  —  Sides    full,   smooth    form,  carrying  size 

evenly  from  shoulders  to  hams ;   ribs  strong,  well  sprung 
at  top  and  bottom. 


404  APPENDIX 

Objections :  Sides  thin,  flat,  flabby,  or  creased ;  ribs 
not  well  sprung. 

10.  Belly  and  flank.  —  Straight  and  full,  devoid  of  coarseness ; 

flank  full  and  running  nearly  on  line  with  side. 

Objections :  Belly  sagging  or  flabby,  coarse ;  flank 
thin  or  tucked  up. 

11.  Hams  or  rump.  —  Hams  full,  long  and  deep ;   rump  slightly 

rounded  from  loin  to  root  of  tail ;  buttock  full,  neat  and 
firm. 

Objections  :  Ham  narrow,  cut  too  high  in  crotch ;  rump 
too  steep  or  too  narrow,  peaked  at  root  of  tail ;  buttock 
flabby. 

12.  Legs  and  feet.  —  Legs  medium   length,  set  well  apart  and 

squarely  under  body,  wide  above  knee  and  hock,  rounded 
and  well  muscled  below,  tapering,  medium  bone,  pastern 
short  and  nearly  upright;  foot  solid,  short,  smooth, 
enabling  the  animal  to  carry  its  weight  with  ease. 

Objections  :  Legs  too  long  or  too  short,  slim,  crooked 
or  coarse ;  .  muscles  weak  or  light ;  joints  coarse,  not 
tapering ;  pastern  too  long,  crooked  or  slender ;  foot  long, 
slim,  weak  or  turned  up. 

13.  Tail.  —  Medium  length,  straight  or  slightly  curled. 

Objections  :  Coarse,  long,  clumsy,  swinging. 

14.  Coat.  —  Fine,  straight,  smooth,  soft  to  touch. 

Objections  :  Bristles  or  swirls,  coarse  or  curly  hair. 

15.  Color.  —  Black ;   white  points  admissible. 

Objections :  Too  much  white  on  feet,  any  white  spots 
on  body  or  head. 

16.  Size.  —  Large   for   condition ;     boar   two   years   and   over 

should  weigh  500  pounds,  sow  same  age,  450 ;  twelve 
months  boar  or  sow,  300 ;  six  months  boar  or  sow,  175 
pounds. 

17.  Action  and  style.  —  Active,  vigorous,  graceful,  style  attrac- 

tive. 

Objections  :  Dull,  sluggish  and  clumsy. 

18.  Condition.  —  Healthy ;   skin  free  from  defect ;  flesh  smooth, 

firm  and  evenly  laid  on. 

Objections  :  Unhealthy ;  skin  scurfy,  scaly  or  mangy ; 
hair  harsh,  not  growthy. 

19.  Disposition.  —  Docile,  quiet  and  easily  handled. 

Objections  :  Cross,  restless,  nervous,  sluggish  or  without 
ambition. 


APPENDIX  405 

LARGE  IMPROVED  YORKSHIRE  —  SCALE  OF  POINTS 

General  outline.  —  Long  and  deep  in  proportion  to  width, 
but  not  massive ;  slightly  arched  in  the  back,  symmetri- 
cal and  smooth,  with  body  firmly  supported  by  well- 
placed  legs  of  medium  length 5 

Outline  of  head.  —  Moderate  in  length  and  size,  with  lower 
jaw  well  sprung,  and  some  dish  toward  snout,  increas- 
ing with  advancing  maturity 4 

Forehead  and  poll.  —  Wide 1 

Eye.  —  Medium  size,  clear  and  bright -    .     .         1 

Jowl.  —  Medium,  not  carried  too  far  back,  toward  neck, 

and  not  flabby 1 

Snout.  —  Turning  upward  with  a  slight  curve,  increasing 

with  age 1 

Ear.  —  Medium  in  size,  standing  well  out  from  head,  nearly 

erect,  but  inclining  slightly  forward 1 

Neck.  —  Of  medium  length,  fair  width  and  depth,  rising 
gradually  from  poll  to  withers,  muscular,  but  not  gross, 

evenly  connecting  head  with  body 3 

Outline  of  body.  —  Long,  deep,  and  of  medium  breadth, 
equally  wide  at  shoulder,  side  and  hams ;  top  line  slightly 

arched,  under  line  straight 7 

Back.  —  Moderately  broad,  even  in  width  from  end  to  end ; 

strong  in  loin,  short  ribs  of  good  length 10 

Shoulder.  —  Large,  but  not  massive  ;  not  open  above    .     .         6 
Arm   and   thigh.  —  Broad    and   of    medium   length    and 

development 2 

Brisket.  —  Wide  and  on  a  level  with  under  line    ....         3 
Side.  —  Long,  deep,  straight  and  even  from    shoulder  to 

hip 8 

Ribs.  —  Well  arched  and  deep 5 

Heart  girth  and  flank  girth.  —  Good  and  about  equal  ...         8 
Hindquarters.  —  Long  to  correspond  with  shoulder  and  side, 

deep,  with  moderate  and  gradual  droop  to  tail      ...         5 
Ham.  —  Large,  well  let  down  on  thigh  and  twist  and  rear 

outline  somewhat  rounded 10 

Twist.  —  Well  down  and  meaty 1 

Tail.  —  Medium,  not  much  inclined  to  curl 1 

Legs.  —  Medium  in  length,  strong,  not  coarse,  but  stand- 
ing straight  and  firm 5 

Hair.  —  Abundant,  long,  of  medium  fineness  without  any 

bristles 4 


406  APPENDIX 

Skin.  —  Smooth  and  white,  without  scales,  but  dark  spots 

•      in  skin  do  not  disqualify 2 

Color.  —  White  on  every  part 1 

Movement.  —  Active,  but  not  restless 5 

Total 100 

TAMWORTH  —  STANDARD  OF  EXCELLENCE 

The  following  is  the  standard  of  Tamworths  as  adopted  by 
the  National  Pig  Breeders'  Association  of  Great  Britain  : 

Color.  —  Golden  red  hair  on  a  flesh-colored  skin,  free  from  black. 

Head.  —  Fairly  long,  snout  moderately  long  and  quite  straight, 
face  slightly  dished,  wide  between  ears. 

Ears.  —  Rather  large,  with  fine  fringe,  carried  rigid  and  inclined 
slightly  forward. 

Neck.  —  Fairly  long  and  muscular,  especially  in  boar. 

Chest.  —  Wide  and  deep. 

Shoulders.  —  Fine,  slanting  and  well  set. 

Legs.  —  Strong  and  shapely,  with  plenty  of  bone  and  set  well  out- 
side body. 

Pasterns.  —  Strong  and  sloping. 

Feet.  —  Strong  and  of  fair  size. 

Back.  —  Long  and  straight. 

Loin.  —  Strong  and  broad. 

Tail.  —  Set  on  high  and  well  tasseled. 

Sides.  —  Long  and  deep. 

Ribs.  —  Well  sprung  and  extending  well  up  to  flank. 

Belly.  —  Deep,  with  straight  under  line. 

Flank.  —  Full  and  well  let  down. 

Quarters.  —  Long,  wide,  and  straight  from  hip  to  tail. 

Hams.  —  Broad  and  full,  well  let  down  to  hocks. 

Coat.  —  Abundant,  long,  straight  and  fine. 

Action.  —  Firm  and  free. 

Objections.  —  Black  hair,  very  light  or  ginger  hair,  curly  coat, 
coarse  mane,  black  spots  on  skin,  slouch  or  drooping  ears, 
short  or  turned-up  snout,  heavy  shoulders,  wrinkled  skin,  in- 
bent  knees,  hollowness  at  back  of  shoulders. 


INDEX 


Aberdeen-Angus,  221. 
Action,  98. 
Age,  43. 

determination  of,  43. 

of  horses,  44. 
Age  of  cattle,  53. 

determination  of,  53. 

birth,  54. 

one  year,  54. 

two  years,  54. 

three  years,  54. 

four  years,  54. 

five  years,  55. 

six  years,  55. 

seven  years,  55. 

eight  years,  55. 

horns,  appearance  of,  55. 
Age  of  horses,  44. 

determination  of,  44. 

one  year,  44. 

two  years,  44. 

three  years,  45. 

four  years,  45. 

five  years,  45. 

six  years,  45. 

seven  years,  45. 

eight  years,  52. 

nine  years,  52. 

ten  years,  52. 

eleven  years,  52. 

twelve  years,  53. 

wear  of  incisors,  52. 

shape  of  incisors,  53. 
Age  of  sheep,  55. 

determination  of,  55. 
Age  of  swine,  55. 

determination  of,  55. 
Amble,  103. 

American  saddle  horse,  162. 
Anatomy,  11. 
Anchylosis,  41. 


Animal  form,  31. 

features  of,  31. 
Animal  machine,  highest  type,  6. 

definition,  6. 

economic  purpose,  6. 

intermediate   relation   to   plants 
and  man,  7. 

efficiency  of,  8. 
Ayrshire,  230. 

Bacon  hog,  278. 

production,  279. 

Wiltshire  side,  279. 

type,  279. 

conformation,  279. 

quality,  282. 

condition,  282. 

method  of  inspection,  283. 
Beef  carcass  cuts,  183. 

loin,  185. 

round,  186. 

ribs,  187. 

chuck,  187. 

score  card,  188. 

relative  values,  188. 
Beef  cattle,  182. 

production,  182. 

dressing  percentage,  189. 

type,  189. 

conformation,  190. 

quality,  191. 

condition,  191. 

method  of  inspection,  195. 

manner  of  showing,  320. 
Belgian,  149. 
Berkshire,  285. 
Bishoping,  53. 
Block  type,  175,  177. 

early  maturity,  177. 

rapid  fattening,  177. 

dressing  percentage,  178. 
407 


408 


INDEX 


Blood,  18. 

Cheviot,  259. 

circulation  of,  18. 

Chunk,  128. 

Bone  of  horses,  115. 

Classes  of  horses,  113. 

Bowed  tendons,  43. 

Clydesdale,  151. 

Breaking  down,  42. 

Coach  horse,  129. 

Breed,  36. 

Cob,  132. 

the  best,  36. 

Color,  56. 

Breed  character,  35. 

significance  of,  56. 

factors  determining,  36. 

classification  of,  57. 

objectionable  features,  37. 

Combination  horse,  140. 

Breeds,  147. 

Comparison,  86. 

horses,  147. 

Condition,  33. 

cattle,  217. 

beef  cattle,  191. 

sheep,  252. 

dairy  cow,  210. 

swine,  285. 

mutton  sheep,  245. 

Breeders,  classes  of,  3. 

fat  hog,  277. 

Breeding,  definition,  4. 

bacon  hog,  282. 

for  improvement,  4. 

Conformation,  32. 

Breeding,  109. 

influence  on  way  of  going,  108. 

influence  on  way  of  going,  109. 

beef  cattle,  190. 

influence  of,  181. 

dairy  cow,  204. 

Breeding  classes,  311. 

mutton  sheep,  244. 

horses,  311. 

wool  sheep,  248. 

beef  cattle,  311. 

fat  hog,  274. 

dairy  cattle,  314. 

bacon  hog,  279. 

sheep,  316. 

Constitution,  33. 

swine,  316. 

breeding  stock,  303. 

Breeding  stock,  297. 

Contraction  of  heels,  40. 

selection,  297. 

Contraction  of  soles,  40. 

sire,  297. 

Correlation,  58. 

dam,  297. 

law  of,  58. 

prepotency,  298. 

of  form  and  function,  58. 

masculinity,  302. 

of  parts,  59. 

femininity,  302. 

Cotswold,  263. 

form,  303. 

Cross  firing,  112. 

constitution,  303. 

Curb,  42. 

substance,  305. 

Brown  Swiss,  231. 

Dairy  cattle,  197. 

production,  197. 

Canter,  105. 

form  and  function,  197. 

Carcass  cuts,  beef,  183. 

manner  of  showing,  321. 

mutton,  242. 

Dairy  cow,  198. 

pork,  271. 

reproduction,  198. 

Cattle,  182. 

temperament,  198-211. 

breeds,  217. 

feeding  capacity,  199. 

Character,  34-35. 

constitution,  199-210. 

breed,  35. 

udder,  199-205. 

sex,  35. 

type,  201. 

Chester  White,  289. 

conformation,  204. 

INDEX 


409 


Dairy  cow  —  Continued 

Feeding  hogs,  278,  282. 

points,  205. 

Femininity,  302. 

quality,  209. 

Fine  harness  horse,  141. 

substance,  210. 

Fleece,  249. 

condition,  210. 

quality,  249. 

method  of  inspection,  213. 

condition,  249. 

Demonstrations,  85. 

examination,  251. 

use  of,  85. 

Food,  16. 

material  for,  85. 

prehension  of,  16. 

Disposition,  34. 

digestion  of,  16. 

Dorset-horn,  258. 

assimilation  of,  17. 

Draft  horse,  116-125. 

Forging,  111. 

conformation,  117. 

Founder,  40. 

quality,  117. 

Fox-trot,  107. 

temperament,  118. 

French  Coach,  157. 

way  of  going,  118. 

Dressing  percentage,  178,  189. 

Gaited  saddle  horse,  135. 

Dry  cows,  211. 

Gallop,  103. 

Dual-purpose  cattle,  214. 

Galloway,  223. 

production,  214. 

General  appearance,  31. 

type,  216. 

German  Coach,  157. 

Duroc  Jersey,  288. 

Going  surface,  111. 

Dutch-belted,  233. 

influence  on  way  of  going,   111. 

Dwelling,  112. 

Guernsey,  227. 

Early  maturity,  56,  177. 

Hackney,  154. 

Exostoses,  40. 

Hackney  pony,  167- 

Expresser,  128. 

Hampshire  sheep,  257. 

Hampshire  swine,  290. 

Fat,  180. 

Handling,  61. 

color,  180. 

method  of,  61. 

consistence,  180. 

Heaves,  40. 

Fat  hog,  271. 

Heifer  calves,  211. 

production,  271. 

Height,  31. 

carcass  cuts,  271. 

Hereford,  220. 

type,  274. 

Histology,  9. 

conformation,  274. 

epithelial  tissue,  9. 

points,  275. 

connective  tissue,  9. 

quality,  277. 

muscle  tissue,  10. 

condition,  277. 

nerve  tissue,  10. 

Fat  hog  carcass  cuts,  272. 

Holstein-Friesian,  228. 

hams,  272. 

Horns,  55. 

middle  piece,  272. 

appearance  of,  55. 

shoulders,  272. 

Horse,  38. 

lard,  274. 

unsoundness  in,  38. 

Feeder,  129. 

of  limbs,  40. 

Feeder  cattle,  193. 

age,  44. 

production,  193. 

Horses,  12. 

type,  195. 

points  of,  12. 

410 


INDEX 


Horses  —  Continued 

Live-stock  husbandry,  object  of,  3. 

judging  of,  93. 

Live-stock  shows,  307. 

history  of  service  of,  93. 

benefits,  309. 

performance  of,  93. 

classification,  309. 

structure  of,  analogous  to  man,  94. 

age  basis,  316. 

mechanical  structure  of,  94. 

manner  of  showing,  318. 

stride  of,  96. 

Logger,  128. 

way  of  going,  37-98. 

pace,  98. 

Manner  of  showing,  318. 

gait  of,  99. 

horses,  318. 

deviations  in  direction  of  legs,  109. 

breeding  horses,  318. 

types,  113. 

harness  and  saddle  horses,  319. 

classes,  113. 

drafters,  319. 

classification,  125. 

beef  cattle,  320. 

breeds,  147. 

dairy  cattle,  321. 

manner  of  showing,  318. 

sheep,  322. 

Hunter,  138. 

swine,  323. 

Market  classification  of  horses,  125. 

Improvement,  bases  of,  4. 

Market  division,  309. 

the  individual,  64. 

horses,  309. 

analysis  of,  64. 

fat  classes,  309. 

Inspection,  62. 

Masculinity,  302. 

order  of,  62. 

Meat,  175. 

beef  cattle,  195. 

quality,  178. 

dairy  cow,  213. 

grain,  179. 

sheep,  250. 

marbling,  179. 

swine,  283. 

color,  180. 

Interfering,  111. 

consistence,  180. 

fat,  180. 

Jersey,  225. 

moisture,  181. 

Judging,  proficiency  in,  5. 

odor,  181. 

show  ring,  5. 

taste,  181. 

benefits  of,  5. 

lean,  181. 

purpose  of,  8. 

proportion  to  bone,  181. 

definition  of,  27. 

Meat  animal,  176. 

steps  involved,  27. 

breeders'  interest  in,  176. 

information,  27. 

feeders'  interest  in,  176. 

observation,  27. 

butchers'  interest  in,  176. 

comparison,  28. 

Mechanical  appliances,  110. 

conclusion,  28. 

influences  on  way  of  going,  1  10. 

system  in-,  28. 

Merino,  264. 

first  impressions,  28. 

American,  265. 

practice,  64. 

Delaine,  267. 

competitive,  87. 

Class  A,  266. 

Jump,  106. 

Class  B,  266. 

Class  C,  267. 

Lard,  274. 

Black  Topped,  265. 

Leicester,  260. 

Rambouillet,  268. 

Lincoln,  263. 

Milk,  198. 

INDEX 


411 


Milking  Short-horn,  236. 

Pounding,  112. 

Milk  teeth,  43. 

Power  type  of  horse,  113. 

Model  horse,  141. 

bone,  115. 

Mule,  168. 

Practice  judging,  64. 

draft,  169. 

Prepotency,  298. 

mine,  170. 

plantation,  170. 

Quality,  32. 

score  card,  75. 

beef  cattle,  191. 

Muscular  system,  14. 

dairy  cow,  209. 

Muscles,  14. 

mutton  sheep,  245. 

structure  of,  14. 

wool  sheep,  248. 

arrangement  of,  14. 

fat  hog,  277. 

action  of,  15. 

bacon  hog,  282. 

Mutton  carcass  cuts,  242. 

saddle,  242. 

Race  horse,  135. 

rack,  242. 

Rack,  103. 

Mutton  sheep,  240. 

Rambouillet,  268. 

type,  243. 

Red  Polled,  234. 

production,  240-246. 

Reproduction,  19. 

carcass  cuts,  242. 

impregnation,  19. 

conformation,  244. 

gestation,  20. 

quality,  245. 

parturition,  20. 

condition,  245. 

lactation,  22. 

method  of  inspection,  250. 

dairy  cow,  198. 

Ring-bone,  40. 

Nervous  system,  19. 

Roadster,  132. 

function  of,  19. 

Roaring,  39. 

Rolling,  112. 

Observation,  27-60. 

Rough  joints,  42. 

means  of  making,  60. 

Runabout  horse,  132. 

method  of,  61. 

Runners,  120. 

system  of  making,  62. 

Running  walk,  107. 

Oxford,  255. 

Saddle  horse,  123. 

Pace,  98-103. 

weight  carrying,  123. 

Pacers,  120. 

conformation,  124. 

Paddling,  111. 

quality,  124. 

Park  horse,  129. 

way  of  going,  124. 

Pathology,  23. 

intelligence,  124. 

effect  upon  function,  23. 

Saddle  type  of  horse,  122. 

Percheron,  147. 

Scale,  31. 

Physiology,  16. 

Scalping,  112. 

Pointing,  112. 

Schooling,  110. 

Poland  China,  286. 

influence  on  way  of  going,  1  10. 

Polled  Durham,  219. 

Score  card,  64. 

Ponies,  142. 

draft  horse,  65. 

under  46  inches,  112. 

heavy  harness  horse,  68. 

11-2  to  14-2,  143. 

light  harness  horse,  70. 

polo,  145. 

saddle  horse,  72. 

412 


INDEX 


Score  card  —  Continued 

Speed    type    of    horse,    runners, 

mule,  75. 

120. 

beef  steer,  77. 

Speedy  cutting,  112. 

dairy  cow,  78. 

Splint,  40. 

mutton  sheep,  80. 

Standardbred,  158. 

wool  sheep,  81. 

Stepping  pace,  107. 

fat  hog,  83. 

Stride,  96. 

bacon  hog,  84. 

deviation  in,  96. 

beef  carcass,  188. 

phases  of,  97. 

Selection,  4. 

Student  judging  teams,  89. 

Sex  character,  34. 

coaching  of,  89. 

Sheep,  239. 

Style,  31. 

types,  239. 

Substance,  33. 

points,  244. 

dairy  cow,  210. 

method  of  inspection,  250. 

breeding  stock,  305. 

breeds,  252. 

Suffolk,  153. 

classification,  252. 

Swine,  271. 

manner  of  showing,  322. 

types,  271. 

Shetland,  164. 

points,  275. 

Shire,  152. 

feeding,  278. 

Short-horn,  217. 

breeds,  285. 

Show  classification  of  horses,  125. 

classification,  285. 

Show  horse,  122. 

manner  of  showing,  323. 

conformation,  122. 

Symmetry,  31. 

quality,  122. 

temperament,  122. 

Tamworth,  292. 

way  of  going,  122. 

Temperament,  34. 

Showing,  29. 

dairy  cow,  19/8-211. 

conditions,  29. 

Thoroughbred,  160. 

posing,  29. 

Thrush,  40. 

Show  type  of  horse,  121. 

Trappy,  112. 

Shropshire,  254. 

Traverse,  107. 

Side-bone,  41. 

Trot,  99. 

Skeleton,  the,  11. 

high  stepper,  99. 

the  foreleg,  11. 

trotter,  99. 

the  hind  leg,  13. 

saddle  horse,  101. 

the  foot,  13. 

Trotters,  120. 

joints,  13. 

Type,  32. 

Soundness,  37. 

influence    on    way    of    going, 

Southdown,  253. 

108. 

Spavin,  40. 

beef  cattle,  189. 

Speed  horse,  135. 

feeder  cattle,  195. 

Speed  type  of  horse,  118. 

dairy  cow,  201. 

conformation,  120. 

dual-purpose  cattle,  216. 

quality,  120. 

mutton  sheep,  243. 

temperament,  120. 

wool  sheep,  247. 

way  of  going,  120. 

fat  hog,  274. 

trotters,  120. 

bacon  hog,  279. 

pacers,  120. 

Types  of  horses,  113. 

INDEX 


413 


Udder,  199-205. 

structure,  200. 

function,  200. 
Unsoundness,  37. 

hereditary,  37. 

defective  conformation  in,  37. 

in  horses,  38. 

of  limbs,  40. 

Veterinary  examination,  320. 

Walk,  99. 

Walk-trot-canter  saddle  horse,  136. 

Way  of  going,  37,  98. 

pace,  98. 

action,  98. 

factors  influencing,  107. 


Weight,  31. 
Welsh,  166. 
Wiltshire  side,  279. 
Winding,  111. 
Winging,  111. 
Wool,  246. 

classification,  246. 

clothing,  247. 

delaine,  247. 

combing,  247. 
Wool  sheep,  247. 

type,  247. 

conformation,  248. 

quality,  248. 

fleece,  249. 

Yorkshire,  291. 


nr\HE  following  pages  contain  advertisements  of  a 
few  of  the  Macmillan  books  on  kindred  subjects 


Manual  of  Farm  Animals 


A  Practical  Guide  to  the  Choosing,  Breeding,  and  Keep  of  Horses, 
Cattle,  Sheep,  and  Swine 

BY    MERRITT    W.    HARPER 

Assistant  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry  in  the  New  York  State  College 
of  Agriculture  at  Cornell  University 

Illustrated,  decorated  cloth,  izmo,  545  pp.,  index,  $2.00  nel 

(The  Rural  Manuals  Edited  by  L.  H.  Bailey) 

The  author  discusses  in  this  work  the  general  care  and  man- 
agement of  farm  animals  rather  than  the  breeds.  However,  a 
knowledge  of  the  latter  is  not  altogether  excluded  since  it  is 
necessary  in  treating  of  the  care  and  management  of  farm 
animals. 

The  method  is  here  adopted  of  freely  inserting  pictures  of 
good  animals  of  many  breeds,  with  liberal  legends,  letting  them 
run  as  a  minor  motive  throughout  the  book.  By  this  plan  the 
reader  will  take  away  with  him  some  of  the  main  characteristics 
of  the  breeds  with  little  effort  on  his  part.  The  book  is  a  man- 
ual, and  therefore  considers  common  practical  matters  in  much 
detail. 

These  practical  problems,  which  confront  the  stockman 
whether  he  be  the  owner  of  few  animals  or  of  many,  have  long 
needed  to  be  systematically  and  authoritatively  treated. 

In  this  practical  guide  on  the  choosing,  feeding,  breeding, 
care  and  management  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine,  is 
contained  that  information  which  hitherto  the  animal  owner  has 
had  to  cull  from  numerous  sources.  By  calling  attention  to  the 
diseases  and  ailments  common  to  farm  animals,  the  book  shows 
the  reader  the  importance  of  securing  reliable  aid  when  the 
subject  is  beyond  his  knowledge  or  skill.  The  work  is  invalu- 
able as  a  practical  guide  in  raising  farm  animals. 


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The  Training  and  Breaking  of  Horses 

BY  MERRITT  W.   HARPER 

Assistant  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry  in  the  New  York  State  College  of 
Agriculture  at  Cornell  University.  Author  of  "  Manual  of  Farm  Animals,"  etc. 

Illustrated,  decorated  cloth,  I2mo,  $1.75  net 

(Rural  Science  Series  Edited  by  L.  H.  Bailey) 

"  Since  the  effectiveness  of  the  horse  and  the  safety  of  the  master  and  his 
family  depend  so  largely  upon  the  understanding  between  men  and  horses," 
says  Professor  Harper,  in  his  preface,  "  it  seems  worth  while  to  give  the  methods 
of  establishing  agreeable  relationships  careful  consideration.  It  is  to  promote 
this  that  the  present  volume  is  written.  This  is  done  with  the  thought  that  the 
usefulness  of  the  horse  depends  on  his  being  readily  subservient  to  his  master's 
will,  and  the  author  here  sets  forth  the  methods  that  are  most  likely  to  bring 
this  about.  Beginning  with  the  foal,  each  class  of  horse  is  considered,  and  a 
separate  chapter  is  devoted  to  the  education  of  the  more  common  classes  —  the 
work  horse,  the  trotting  horse,  the  coacher,  the  roadster,  and  the  saddle  horse. 

"  Special  attention  is  also  given  to  the  training  and  subduing  of  wild  horses 
as  well  as  to  overcoming  outdoor  and  stable  vices  and  whims.  The  book  is 
written  from  a  practical  point  of  view  and  will  be  of  great  service  to  all  those 
who  have  anything  to  do  with  man's  principal  beast  of  burden." 

Animal  Husbandry  for  Schools 

BY  MERRITT  W.   HARPER 

Cloth,  istno,  illustrated,  409  pp.,  $1.40  net 

With  the  increasing  study  of  agricultural  subjects  in  the  schools  has  come 
a  demand  for  a  book  on  Animal  Husbandry  suitable  for  use  by  students  of  high 
school  age.  It  is  to  meet  such  a  need  that  this  book  has  been  written,  and  in 
content,  style,  and  arrangement  it  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  purpose.  It 
belongs  to  the  Rural  Textbook  Series  prepared  under  the  editorial  supervision 
of  Professor  L.  H.  Bailey  of  Cornell  University. 

In  the  five  parts  into  which  the  book  is  divided  the  author  treats  horses, 
cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  poultry,  and  each  is  discussed  with  reference  to  breeds, 
judging  the  animal,  feeding,  and  care  and  management.  There  is  also  a  chap- 
ter on  the  general  principles  of  feeding.  Practical  questions  and  numerous 
laboratory  exercises  supplement  the  text  and  compel  the  student  to  think  through 
each  subject  as  he  proceeds.  The  book  is  extensively  illustrated.  Designed 
for  use  as  a  textbook,  it  is  also  well  suited  for  use  as  a  reference  book  in  schools 
in  which  time  limitations  make  it  impossible  to  use  it  as  a  text. 


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Genetics.        An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Heredity 
BY   HERBERT    EUGENE    WALTER 

Associate  Professor  of  Biology,  Brown  University 

Cloth,  i2tno,  $1.50  net 

In  his  "Genetics"  Professor  Walter  summarizes  the  more  re- 
cent phases  of  the  study  of  heredity  and  gives  to  the  non-technical 
reader  a  clear  introduction  to  questions  that  are  at  present  agitating 
the  biological  world,  and  which  are  of  particular  importance  to  all 
those  interested  in  the  evolutionary  or  hereditary  problems  of 
breeding. 

Professor  Walter's  conception  of  sexual  reproduction  is  that  it  is  a 
device  for  doubling  the  possible  variations  in  the  offspring,  by  the 
mingling  of  two  strains  of  germ  plasm.  The  weight  of  probability, 
he  concludes,  is  decidedly  against  the  time-honored  belief  in  the 
inheritance  of  acquired  characters.  Professor  Walter  also  predicts 
that  the  key  to  this  whole  problem  will  be  furnished  by  the  chemist, 
and  that  the  final  analysis  of  the  matter  of  the  "  heritage  carriers  " 
will  be  seen  to  be  chemical  rather  than  morphological  in  nature. 
Professor  Walter  holds,  if  only  modifications  of  the  germ  plasm  can 
count  in  inheritance,  and  if  these  modifications  come  wholly  from 
the  combination  of  two  germ  plasms,  then  the  only  method  of  heredi- 
tary influence  is  in  the  selection  of  parents. 

This  book  is  now  widely  used  as  a  class  text  in  courses  on  the 
breeding  of  animals  or  plants  given  in  the  agricultural  colleges. 

"  I  find  that  it  is  a  very  useful  study  for  an  introduction  to  the  subject. 
Professor  Walter  has  certainly  made  one  of  the  clearest  statements  of  the  mat- 
ters involved  that  I  have  seen,  and  has  made  a  book  which  students  will  find 
very  useful  because  he  keeps  everything  in  such  entirely  simple  and  clear  out- 
lines, and  at  the  same  time  he  has  brought  the  book  up  to  date." —  PROFESSOR 
FREDERIC  B.  LOOMIS,  Amherst  College. 

"  I  am  much  pleased  with  it  and  congratulate  you  upon  securing  so  excel- 
lent a  treatment.  It  is  one  of  the  most  readable  scientific  books  I  have,  and 
goes  unerringly  to  the  fundamentals  of  our  most  recent  advances  in  the  experi- 
mental study  of  heredity  as  well  as  those  of  the  older  studies."  —  PROFESSOR 
GEORGE  H.  SHULL,  Cold  Spring  Harbor,  Long  Island,  N.  Y. 

"  There  was  a  decided  need  for  just  such  a  work.  The  book  strikes  me 
as  most  excellently  done." — PROFESSOR  H.  S.  JENNINGS,  Johns  Hopkins 
University. 

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The  Feeding  of  Animals 

BY   WHITMAN    H.    JORDAN 

Director  of  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

Fifth  edition,  cloth,  i2mo,  $1.50  net 

This  is  not  a  statement  of  rules  or  details  of  practice,  but  an  attempt  to 
present  the  main  facts  and  principles  fundamental  to  the  art  of  feeding  animals. 
The  book  is  a  valuable  contribution  to  agricultural  literature  and  is  worth  a 
place  in  any  library,  but  especially  in  one  open  to  rural  readers.  The  author 
is  well  known  as  Director  of  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

"  A  valuable  contribution  to  agricultural  literature.  Not  a  statement  of 
rules  or  details  of  practice,  but  an  effort  to  present  the  main  facts  and  principles 
fundamental  to  the  art  of  feeding  animals."  —  New  England  Farmer. 

The  Scientific  Feeding  of  Animals 

BY  PROFESSOR  O.   KELLNER 

Authorized  Translation  by  WILLIAM  GOODWIN,  B.Sc.,  PH.D.,  Lec- 
turer on  Agricultural  Chemistry,  and  Head  of  the  Chemical  Department,  South- 
Eastern  Agricultural  College  (University  of  London),  Wye,  Kent. 

Cloth,  ismo,  $1.75  net 

An  authorized  English  translation  of  the  valuable  work  of  Dr.  O.  Kellner. 
It  explains  in  simple  language  the  general  laws  which  underlie  the  feeding  of 
animals  and  the  scientific  foundations  upon  which  the  principles  of  animal 
nutrition  rest. 

"  I  wish  to  say  that  it  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  books  in  the  English 
language  on  Feeding  Farm  Animals.  The  author  is  extremely  lucid  in  expres- 
sion and  concise  in  statement.  He  covers  his  field  in  a  manner  that  is  well 
planned  and  such  as  will  give  the  reader  a  most  excellent  knowledge  of  the 
general  principles  of  Feeding."  —  PROFESSOR  CHARLES  S.  PLUMB,  Ohio 
State  University. 

"  Dr.  Kellner's  standing  as  a  student  and  investigator  in  this  subject  is  too 
high  for  any  words  of  commendation  to  be  needed,  and  I  feel  sure  that  the 
translator  and  publisher  have  done  a  service  in  rendering  this  work  available 
to  English  and  American  students."  —  PROFESSOR  HENRY  P.  ARMSBY, 
Pennsylvania  State  College. 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFO"-.  «.    \T  LOS  ANGELES 


3  1158 


ill  Hill  I 

00252  1861 


